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Latin phonology and orthography

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Template:Short description Template:IPA notice Latin phonology is the system of sounds used in various kinds of Latin. This article largely deals with what features can be deduced for Classical Latin as it was spoken by the educated from the late Roman Republic to the early Empire. Evidence comes in the form of comments from Roman grammarians, common spelling mistakes, transcriptions into other languages, and the outcomes of various sounds in the Romance languages.<ref>Covington, Michael. (2019). Latin Pronunciation Demystified.</ref>

Latin orthography refers to the writing system used to spell Latin from its archaic stages down to the present. Latin was nearly always spelt in the Latin alphabet, but further details varied from period to period. The alphabet developed from Old Italic script, which had developed from a variant of the Greek alphabet, which in turn had developed from a variant of the Phoenician alphabet. The Latin alphabet most resembles the Greek alphabet that can be seen on black-figure pottery dating to c. 540 BC, especially the Euboean regional variant.

As the language continued to be used as a classical language, lingua franca and liturgical language long after it ceased being a native language, pronunciation and – to a lesser extent – spelling diverged significantly from the classical standard with Latin words being pronounced differently by native speakers of different languages. While nowadays a reconstructed classical pronunciation aimed to be that of the 1st century AD<ref>Latin Accents.</ref> is usually employed in the teaching of Latin, the Italian-influenced ecclesiastical pronunciation as used by the Catholic church is still in common use. The Traditional English pronunciation of Latin has all but disappeared from classics education but continues to be used for Latin-based loanwords and use of Latin e.g. for binominal names in taxonomy.

During most of the time written Latin was in widespread use, authors variously complained about language change or attempted to "restore" an earlier standard. Such sources are of great value in reconstructing various stages of the spoken language (the Template:Lang is an important source for the spoken variety in the 4th century CE, for example) and have in some cases indeed influenced the development of the language. The efforts of Renaissance Latin authors were to a large extent successful in removing innovations in grammar, spelling and vocabulary present in Medieval Latin but absent in both classical and contemporary Latin.

Letterforms

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File:I littera in manuscripto.jpg
A papyrus fragment in Roman cursive with portions of speeches delivered in the Roman Senate

In Classical times there was no modern-like distinction between upper case and lower case. Inscriptions typically use square capitals, in letterforms largely corresponding to modern upper-case, and handwritten text was generally in the form of cursive, which includes letterforms corresponding to modern lowercase.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Letters and phonemes

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In Classical spelling, individual letters mainly corresponded to individual phonemes (alphabetic principle). Exceptions include:

  1. The letters Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr, each of which could represent either a short vowel or a long one. The long vowels were sometimes marked with apices, as in Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr, while long Template:IPA could be marked with long I Template:Angbr.<ref name="Sihler alphabet">Template:Harvnb</ref> Since the 19th century, long vowels have been marked with macrons, as in Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr; sometimes, breves may also be used to indicate short vowels, as in Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, and Template:Angbr.
  2. The letters Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr, which could either indicate vowels (as mentioned) or the consonants Template:IPA and Template:IPA, respectively. In modern times, the letters Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr began to be used as distinct spellings for these consonants (now often pronounced very differently).
  3. Digraphs such as Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr, which represented the diphthongs Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA. In a few words, these could also stand for sequences of two adjacent vowels, which is sometimes marked by the use of a diaeresis in modern transcriptions, as in Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr.
  4. The digraphs Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr, standing for the aspirated consonants Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA.

Consonants

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Below are the distinctive (i.e. phonemic) consonants that are assumed for Classical Latin. Those placed in brackets have a debated phonemic status, and those preceded by a dagger (†) are found mainly or only in Greek loanwords.

Labial Coronal Palatal Velar Glottal
Template:Small Template:Small
Plosive Template:Small Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link)
Template:Small Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link)
Template:Small †Template:IPA link †Template:IPA link †Template:IPA link
Fricative Template:Small †Template:IPA link
Template:Small Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Nasal Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Rhotic Template:IPA link
Approximant Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link

Phonetics

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Notes on spelling

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Vowels

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Monophthongs

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File:Latin vowel space.png
The Latin vowel-space per Template:Harvnb

Classical Latin had ten native phonemic monophthongs: the five short vowels Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA, and their long counterparts Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA. Two additional monophthongs, Template:IPA and Template:IPA, were sometimes used for Template:Angbr in loanwords from Greek by educated speakers, but most speakers would have approximated them with Template:IPA or Template:IPA.

Front Central Back
Close Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
(y yː) 		Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Mid Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Open Template:IPA link Template:IPA link

Long and short vowels

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The short vowels Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA appear to have been pronounced with a relatively open quality, which may be approximated as Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink, and the corresponding long vowels with a relatively close quality, approximately Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink.Template:Efn That the short Template:IPA and Template:IPA were, as this implies, similar in quality to the long Template:IPA and Template:IPA is suggested by attested misspellings such as:<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Template:IPA most likely had a more open allophone before Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Template:IPA and Template:IPA were probably pronounced closer when they occurred before another vowel, with e.g. Template:Lang written as Template:Angbr in some inscriptions. Short Template:IPA before another vowel is often written with the so-called long I, as in Template:Angbr for Template:Lang, indicating that its quality was similar to that of long Template:IPA; it was almost never confused with Template:Angbr in this position.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Adoption of Greek upsilon

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Template:Angbr was used in Greek loanwords with upsilon Template:Angbr. This letter represented the close front rounded vowel, both short and long: Template:IPA and Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> Latin did not have this sound as a native phoneme, and speakers tended to pronounce such loanwords with Template:IPA and Template:IPA in Old Latin and Template:IPA and Template:IPA in Classical and Late Latin if they were unable to produce Template:IPA and Template:IPA.

Template:Lang

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An intermediate vowel sound (likely a close central vowel Template:IPAblink or possibly its rounded counterpart Template:IPAblink, or even Template:IPAblink), called Template:Lang, can be reconstructed for the classical period.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> Such a vowel is found in Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang (also spelled Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang) and other words. It developed out of any historical short vowel in a non-initial open syllable by vowel reduction, probably first to Template:IPAblink, later fronted to Template:IPAblink or Template:IPAblink. In the vicinity of labial consonants, this sound was not as fronted and may have retained some rounding, thus being more similar if not identical to the unreduced short Template:IPA Template:IPAblink.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The Claudian letter Ⱶ ⱶ was possibly invented to represent this sound, but is never actually found used this way in the epigraphic record (it usually served as a replacement for the upsilon).

Vowel nasalization

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Template:Listen Vowels followed by a nasal consonant were allophonically realised as long nasal vowels in two environments:<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Those long nasal vowels had the same quality as ordinary long vowels. In Vulgar Latin, the vowels lost their nasalisation, and they merged with the long vowels (which were themselves shortened by that time). This is shown by many forms in the Romance languages, such as Spanish Template:Lang from Vulgar Latin Template:Lang (originally Template:Lang) and Italian Template:Lang from Vulgar Latin Template:Lang (Classical Latin Template:Lang). On the other hand, the short vowel and Template:IPA were restored, for example, in French Template:Lang and Template:Lang from Template:Lang and Template:Lang (Template:Angbr is the normal development of Latin short Template:Angbr), likely by analogy with other forms beginning in the prefix Template:Lang.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

When a final Template:Angbr occurred before a plosive or nasal in the next word, however, it was pronounced as a nasal at the place of articulation of the following consonant. For instance, Template:Lang Template:IPA was written for Template:Lang in inscriptions, and Template:Lang Template:IPA was a double entendre,<ref name="Allen -Vm" /> presumably for Template:Lang Template:IPA.

Diphthongs

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Diphthongs classified by beginning sound
Front Back
Close uiTemplate:SpacesTemplate:IPA
Mid eiTemplate:SpacesTemplate:IPA
euTemplate:SpacesTemplate:IPA		 oeTemplate:SpacesTemplate:IPA
Open aeTemplate:SpacesTemplate:IPA
auTemplate:SpacesTemplate:IPA

Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr could represent diphthongs: Template:Angbr represented Template:IPA, Template:Angbr represented Template:IPA, Template:Angbr represented Template:IPA, Template:Angbr represented Template:IPA, and Template:Angbr represented Template:IPA. Template:Angbr sometimes represented the diphthong Template:IPA, as in Template:Lang Template:Audio and Template:Lang.<ref name="ui" /> The diphthong Template:Angbr had mostly changed to Template:Angbr by the Classical epoch; Template:Angbr remained only in a few words, such as the interjection Template:Lang.

If there is a tréma above the second vowel, both vowels are pronounced separately: Template:Angbr Template:IPA, Template:Angbr Template:IPA, Template:Angbr Template:IPA and Template:Angbr Template:IPA. However, disyllabic Template:Angbr in morpheme borders is traditionally written without the tréma: Template:Lang Template:IPA 'my'.

In Old Latin, Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr were written as Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr and probably pronounced as Template:IPA and Template:IPA, with a fully closed second element, similar to the final syllable in French Template:Audio. In the late Old Latin period, the last element of the diphthongs was lowered to Template:IPA,<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> so that the diphthongs were pronounced Template:IPA and Template:IPA in Classical Latin. They were then monophthongized to Template:IPA and Template:IPA respectively, starting in rural areas at the end of the Republican period.Template:Efn The process, however, does not seem to have been completed before the 3rd century AD, and some scholars say that it may have been regular by the 5th century.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Vowel and consonant length

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Vowel and consonant length were more significant and more clearly defined in Latin than in modern English. Length is the duration of time that a particular sound is held before proceeding to the next sound in a word. In the modern spelling of Latin, especially in dictionaries and academic work, macrons are frequently used to mark long vowels: Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr, while the breve is sometimes used to indicate that a vowel is short: Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr.

Long consonants were usually indicated through doubling, but ancient Latin orthography did not distinguish between the vocalic and consonantal uses of Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr. Vowel length was indicated only intermittently in classical sources and even then through a variety of means. Later medieval and modern usage tended to omit vowel length altogether. A short-lived convention of spelling long vowels by doubling the vowel letter is associated with the poet Lucius Accius. Later spelling conventions marked long vowels with an apex (a diacritic similar to an acute accent) or, in the case of long i, by increasing the height of the letter (long i); in the second century AD, those were given apices as well.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The Classical vowel length system faded in later Latin and ceased to be phonemic in Romance, having been replaced by contrasts in vowel quality. Consonant length, however, remains contrastive in much of Italo-Romance, cf. Italian Template:Lang "ninth" versus Template:Lang "grandfather".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

File:La-cls-anus, annus, anus.ogg
Recording of Template:Lang

A minimal set showing both long and short vowels and long and short consonants is Template:Lang Template:IPA ('anus'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('year'), Template:Lang Template:IPA ('old woman').

Table of orthography

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The letters Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr are always pronounced as in English Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA respectively, and they do not usually cause any difficulties. The exceptions are mentioned below:

Pronunciation of Latin consonants
Latin
grapheme		 Latin
phoneme		 English approximation
Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr Template:IPA Always hard as k in sky, never soft as in cellar, cello, or social. Template:Angbr is a letter coming from Greek, but seldom used and generally replaced by Template:Angbr.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As ch in chemistry, and aspirated; never as in challenge or change and also never as in Bach or chutzpah. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Always hard as g in good, never soft as g in gem.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As ngn in wingnut.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as y in yard, never as j in just.
Template:IPA Geminated between vowels, as y y in toy yacht.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA When doubled Template:Angbr or before Template:Angbr, as clear l in link (known as Template:Lang).<ref>Template:Harvnb.</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
Template:IPA In all other positions,Template:DubiousTemplate:Citation needed as dark l in bowl (known as Template:Lang).
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As p in spy, unaspirated.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As p in party, always aspirated; never as in photo when being pronounced in English. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Similar to qu in quick, never as qu in antique. Before Template:Angbr, like cu in French Template:Lang.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA There were two trends: the educated and popular pronunciation. Within educated circles it was pronounced Template:IPA, evoking the Old Latin pronunciation (Template:Lang, Template:Lang); meanwhile, within popular circles it was pronounced Template:IPA (Template:Lang, Template:Lang).<ref name="Traina & Perini 1998">Template:Citation</ref><ref name="Traina 2002">Template:Cite book. Traina cites various sources: Quintilianus (I, 7, 26) certifies that his teachers had the group 'vo' written in its epoch by now writing 'vu'; Velio Longo (VII 58 K.) attests the spelling 'quu' pronounced Template:IPA; various inscriptions from different periods even show the spelling 'cu' for 'quu'.</ref>
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As r in Italian and several Romance languages.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As r in Italian and several Romance languages, but voiceless; e.g. Template:Lang Template:Angbr. (see Voiceless alveolar trill). Transcription of Greek Template:Angbr, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As s in say, never as s in rise or measure.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As t in stay
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As th in thyme, and aspirated; never as in thing, or that. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr, as w in wine, never as v in vine.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As one is pronounced in some English accents, but without the nasal sound: Template:Lang Template:IPA, Template:Lang Template:IPA. The spelling Template:Angbr is post-classical, made in order to become regular in spelling.<ref name="Traina & Perini 1998" /><ref name="Traina 2002"/>
Template:Angbr Template:IPA A letter representing Template:Angbr + Template:Angbr, as well as Template:Angbr + Template:Angbr: as x in English axe.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As in zoom, never as in pizza (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr.
Pronunciation of Latin vowels
Latin
grapheme 		Latin
phone 		English approximation
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Similar to u in cut when short. Transliteration of Greek short Template:Angbr.
Template:IPA Similar to a in father when long. Transliteration of Greek long Template:Angbr.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As e in pet when short. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr.
Template:IPA Similar to ey in they when long. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr, and Template:Angbr in some cases.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As i in sit when short. Transliteration of short Greek Template:Angbr.
Template:IPA Similar to i in machine when long. Transliteration of Greek long Template:Angbr, and Template:Angbr in some cases.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As o in sort when short. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr.
Template:IPA Similar to o in holy when long. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr, and Template:Angbr in some cases.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Similar to u in put when short.
Template:IPA Similar to u in true when long. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As in German Stück when short (or as short u or i) (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek short Template:Angbr.
Template:IPA As in German früh when long (or as long u or i) (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek long Template:Angbr.
Pronunciation of Latin diphthongs
Latin
grapheme 		Latin
phone 		English approximation
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As in aisle. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As in out. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As in ey in they. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr in some cases.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As in Portuguese Template:Lang, similar to the British pronunciation of ow in low. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As in boy. Transliteration of Greek Template:Angbr.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA As in Spanish Template:Lang, similar to hooey.
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Transliteration of the Greek diphthong Template:Angbr.

Syllables and stress

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Nature of the accent

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Although some French and Italian scholars believe that the classical Latin accent was purely a pitch accent, which had no effect on the placing of words in a line of poetry, the view of most scholars is that the accent was a stress accent. One argument for this is that unlike most languages with tonal accents, there are no minimal pairs like ancient Greek Template:Lang (falling accent) "light" vs. Template:Lang (rising accent) "man" where a change of accent on the same syllable changes the meaning.<ref>W. C. de Melo (2007), Review: Cesare Questa, La metrica di Plauto e Terenzio. Bryn Mawr Classical Review.</ref> Among other arguments are the loss of vowels before or after the accent in words such as Template:Lang and Template:Lang; and the shortening of post or pre-accentual syllables in Plautus and Terence by brevis brevians, for example, scansions such as Template:Lang and Template:Lang with the second syllable short.<ref>W. Sidney Allen (1978), Vox Latina, 2nd edition, pp. 85–86.</ref>

Old Latin stress

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In Old Latin, as in Proto-Italic, stress normally fell on the first syllable of a word.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> During this period, the word-initial stress triggered changes in the vowels of non-initial syllables, the effects of which are still visible in classical Latin. Compare for example:

In the earliest Latin writings, the original unreduced vowels are still visible. Study of this vowel reduction, as well as syncopation (dropping of short unaccented syllables) in Greek loan words, indicates that the stress remained word-initial until around the time of Plautus, in the 3rd century BC.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The placement of the stress then shifted to become the pattern found in classical Latin.

Classical Latin syllables and stress

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Template:See also In Classical Latin, stress changed. It moved from the first syllable to one of the last three syllables, called the antepenult, the penult, and the ultima (short for Template:Lang 'before almost last', Template:Lang 'almost last', and Template:Lang 'last syllable'). Its position is determined by the syllable weight of the penult. If the penult is heavy, it is accented; if the penult is light and there are more than two syllables, the antepenult is accented.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> In a few words originally accented on the penult, accent is on the ultima because the two last syllables have been contracted, or the last syllable has been lost.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Syllable

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To determine stress, syllable weight of the penult must be determined. To determine syllable weight, words must be broken up into syllables.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> In the following examples, syllable structure is represented using these symbols: C (a consonant), K (a stop), R (a liquid), and V (a short vowel), VV (a long vowel or diphthong).

Nucleus

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Every short vowel, long vowel, or diphthong belongs to a single syllable. This vowel forms the syllable nucleus. Thus Template:Lang has four syllables, one for every vowel (a i ā u: V V VV V), Template:Lang has three (ae e u: VV V V), Template:Lang has two (u ō: V VV), and Template:Lang has one (ui: VV).<ref name="Greenough syllable">Template:Harvnb</ref>

Onset and coda

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A consonant before a vowel or a consonant cluster at the beginning of a word is placed in the same syllable as the following vowel. This consonant or consonant cluster forms the syllable onset.<ref name="Greenough syllable" />

After this, if there is an additional consonant inside the word, it is placed at the end of the syllable. This consonant is the syllable coda. Thus if a consonant cluster of two consonants occurs between vowels, they are broken up between syllables: one goes with the syllable before, the other with the syllable after.<ref name="Allen syllable">Template:Harvnb</ref>

There are two exceptions. A consonant cluster of a stop Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, or Template:IPA followed by a liquid Template:IPA or Template:IPA between vowels usually goes to the syllable after it, although it is also sometimes broken up like other consonant clusters.<ref name="Allen syllable" />

Heavy and light syllables

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As shown in the examples above, Latin syllables have a variety of possible structures. Here are some of them. The first four examples are light syllables, and the last six are heavy. All syllables have at least one V (vowel). A syllable is heavy if it has another V or C (or both) after the first V. In the table below, the extra V or VC is bolded, indicating that it makes the syllable heavy.

V
C V
C C V
C C C V
C V V
C V C
C V V C
V V
V C
V V C

Thus, a syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or diphthong, a short vowel and a consonant, a long vowel and a consonant, or a diphthong and a consonant. Syllables ending in a diphthong and consonant are rare in Classical Latin.

The syllable onset has no relationship to syllable weight; both heavy and light syllables can have no onset or an onset of one, two, or three consonants.

In Latin a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a long vowel or diphthong is traditionally called Template:Lang (Template:Translation), and a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a consonant is called Template:Lang (Template:Translation). These terms are translations of Greek Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) and Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration), respectively; therefore Template:Lang should not be mistaken for implying a syllable "is long because of its position/place in a word" but rather "is treated as 'long' by convention". This article uses the words heavy and light for syllables, and long and short for vowels since the two are not the same.<ref name="Allen syllable" />

Stress rule

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In a word of three or more syllables, the weight of the penult determines where the accent is placed. If the penult is light, accent is placed on the antepenult; if it is heavy, accent is placed on the penult.<ref name="Allen syllable" /> Below, stress is marked by placing the stress mark Template:Angbr IPA before the stressed syllable.

Words with stress on antepenult
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
CV.CV.CCVC CVV.CV.CVV CV.V.CVV
Words with stress on penult
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
CV.CVC.CVC CV.CVV.CV VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC CV.VV.CVV CV.VC.CV CV.VVC.CVC
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA

Iambic shortening

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Template:Main Iambic shortening or Template:Lang is vowel shortening that occurs in words of the type light–heavy, where the light syllable is stressed. By this sound change, words like Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang with long final vowel change to Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang with short final vowel.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

The term also refers to shortening of closed syllables following a short syllable, for example Template:Lang and so on. This type of shortening is found in early Latin, for example in the comedies of Plautus and Terence, but not in poetry of the classical period.

Elision

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Where one word ended with a vowel (including the nasalized vowels written Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr, and the diphthong Template:Angbr) and the next word began with a vowel, the former vowel, at least in verse, was regularly elided; that is, it was omitted altogether, or possibly (in the case of Template:IPA and Template:IPA) pronounced like the corresponding semivowel. When the second word was Template:Lang or Template:Lang, and possibly when the second word was Template:Lang, a different form of elision sometimes occurred (prodelision): the vowel of the preceding word was retained, and the Template:Angbr was elided instead. Elision also occurred in Ancient Greek, but in that language, it is shown in writing by the vowel in question being replaced by an apostrophe, whereas in Latin elision is not indicated at all in the orthography, but can be deduced from the verse form. Only occasionally is it found in inscriptions, as in Template:Lang for Template:Lang.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Modern conventions

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Spelling

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Letters

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Modern usage, even for classical Latin texts, varies in respect of Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr. During the Renaissance, the printing convention was to use Template:Angbr (upper case) and Template:Angbr (lower case) for both vocalic Template:IPA and consonantal Template:IPA, to use Template:Angbr in the upper case and in the lower case to use Template:Angbr at the start of words and Template:Angbr subsequently within the word regardless of whether Template:IPA and Template:IPA was represented.<ref>For example, Henri Estienne's Template:Lang (1531)</ref>

Many publishers (such as Oxford University Press) have adopted the convention of using Template:Angbr (upper case) and Template:Angbr (lower case) for both Template:IPA and Template:IPA, and Template:Angbr (upper case) and Template:Angbr (lower case) for both Template:IPA and Template:IPA.

An alternative approach, less common today, is to use Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr only for the vowels, and Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr for the approximants.

Most modern editions, however, adopt an intermediate position, distinguishing between Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr, but not between Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr. Usually, a non-vocalic Template:Angbr after Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr or Template:Angbr is still printed as Template:Angbr rather than Template:Angbr, likely because these did not change from Template:IPA to Template:IPA post-classically.Template:Efn

Diacritics

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Textbooks and dictionaries usually indicate the length of vowels by putting a macron or horizontal bar above the long vowel, but it is not generally done in regular texts. Occasionally, mainly in early printed texts up to the 18th century, one may see a circumflex used to indicate a long vowel where this makes a difference to the sense, for instance, Template:Lang Template:IPA ('from Rome' ablative) compared to Template:Lang Template:IPA ('Rome' nominative).<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Sometimes, for instance in Roman Catholic service books, an acute accent over a vowel is used to indicate the stressed syllable. It would be redundant for one who knew the classical rules of accentuation and made the correct distinction between long and short vowels, but most Latin speakers since the 3rd century have not made any distinction between long and short vowels, but they have kept the accents in the same places; thus, the use of accent marks allows speakers to read a word aloud correctly even if they have never heard it spoken aloud.

Pronunciation

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Post-Medieval Latin

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Template:Main Since around the beginning of the Renaissance period onwards, with the language being used as an international language among intellectuals, pronunciation of Latin in Europe came to be dominated by the phonology of local languages, resulting in a variety of different pronunciation systems. See the article Latin regional pronunciation for more details on those (with the exception of the Italian one, which is described in the section on Ecclesiastical pronunciation below).

Loan words and formal study

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When Latin words are used as loanwords in a modern language, there is ordinarily little or no attempt to pronounce them as the Romans did; in most cases, a pronunciation suiting the phonology of the receiving language is employed.

Latin words in common use in English are generally fully assimilated into the English sound system, with little to mark them as foreign; for example, cranium, saliva. Other words have a stronger Latin feel to them, usually because of spelling features such as the digraphs Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr (occasionally written with the ligatures: Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr, respectively), which both denote Template:IPA in English. The digraph Template:Angbr or ligature Template:Angbr in some words tend to be given an Template:IPA pronunciation; for example, curriculum vitae.

However, using loanwords in the context of the language borrowing them is a markedly different situation from the study of Latin itself. In this classroom setting, instructors and students attempt to recreate at least some sense of the original pronunciation. What is taught to native anglophones is suggested by the sounds of today's Romance languages,Template:Citation needed the direct descendants of Latin. Instructors who take this approach rationalize that Romance vowels probably come closer to the original pronunciation than those of any other modern language (see also the section Template:Slink below).

However, other languages—including Romance family members—all have their own interpretations of the Latin phonological system, applied both to loan words and formal study of Latin. But English, Romance, or other teachers do not always point out that the particular accent their students learn is not actually the way ancient Romans spoke.

Ecclesiastical pronunciation

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Template:See also Since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an Italianate pronunciation of Latin has grown to be accepted as a universal standard in the Catholic Church. Before then, the pronunciation of Latin in church was the same as the pronunciation of Latin in other fields and tended to reflect the sound values associated with the nationality and native language of the speaker.Template:Sfn Other ecclesiastical pronunciations are still in use, especially outside the Catholic Church.

A guide to this Italianate pronunciation is provided below. Since the letters or letter-combinations Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr are pronounced as they are in English, they are not included in the table.

Consonants
Grapheme Pronunciation Context Example English approximation
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Before Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr procella change
Template:IPA Before Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr carnem sky (never aspirated as in kill)
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Always Antiochia
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Before Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr agere gem
Template:IPA Before Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr plaga gate
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Always signum canyon (roughly); precisely Italian Template:Lang
Template:Angbr ∅ In nearly all cases hora (silent)
Template:IPA Between vowels in a few words mihi sky (never aspirated as in kill)
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Beginning of a word and before a vowel ianua yard
Template:IPA Between vowels Gaius Doubled, as in toy yacht
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Always kalendae sky (never aspirated as in kill)
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Always paulum slip (never 'dark' as in pools)
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Always praeda spy (never aspirated as in pill)
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Always atque quick (never as in antique)
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Always regina (rolled like Italian or Spanish Template:Lang)
Template:Angbr
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Always (formally) sanctum sing
Template:IPA Between vowels (informally) miser tease
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Before Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr ascendit shade
Template:IPA Before Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr pascunt scare
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Generally tironibus stay (never aspirated as in table nor soft as in nation)
Template:IPA Before unstressed Template:Angbr and not after Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr nationem pizza
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Always conservare preserve
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Generally dextro fox
Template:IPA Word internally before a stressed vowel exaudi examine
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Generally exclamavit exclaim
Template:IPA Before Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr excelsis thick shell
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Always zona lads
Vowels
Grapheme Pronunciation English approximation
Template:Angbr Template:IPA father (roughly)
precisely Spanish Template:Lang
Template:Angbr Template:IPA/Template:IPA pet
Template:Angbr
Template:Angbr
Template:Angbr Template:IPA seek
Template:Angbr Template:IPA/Template:IPA sort
Template:Angbr Template:IPA cool
Template:Angbr Template:IPA seek
Diphthongs
Grapheme Pronunciation English approximation
Template:Angbr Template:IPA out
Template:Angbr Template:IPA buy
Template:Angbr Template:IPA they
Template:Angbr Template:IPA hello as pronounced by Elmer Fudd: hewwo
Template:Angbr Template:IPA Gruyère

In his Template:Lang: A guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin, William Sidney Allen remarked that this pronunciation, used by the Catholic Church in Rome and elsewhere, and whose adoption Pope Pius X recommended in a 1912 letter to the Archbishop of Bourges, "is probably less far removed from classical Latin than any other 'national' pronunciation"; but, as can be seen from the table above, there are, nevertheless, very significant differences.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The introduction to the Template:Lang indicates that Ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation should be used at Church liturgies.<ref name="Liber Usualis2">Liber Usualis, p. xxxvj</ref> The Pontifical Academy for Latin is the pontifical academy in the Vatican that is charged with the dissemination and education of Catholics in the Latin language.

Outside of Austria, Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czechia and Slovakia, it is the most widely used standard in choral singing which, with a few exceptions like Stravinsky's Template:Lang, is concerned with liturgical texts.Template:Citation needed Anglican choirs adopted it when classicists abandoned traditional English pronunciation after World War II. The rise of historically informed performance and the availability of guides such as Copeman's Singing in Latin has led to the recent revival of regional pronunciations.

Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages

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Template:Main As Classical Latin developed to Late Latin, and eventually into the modern Romance languages, it experienced several phonological changes. Notable changes include the following (the precise order of which is uncertain):

Examples

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The following examples are both in verse, which demonstrates several features more clearly than prose.

From Classical Latin

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Virgil's Template:Lang, Book 1, verses 1–4. Quantitative metre (dactylic hexameter). Translation: "I sing of arms and the man, who, driven by fate, came first from the borders of Troy to Italy and the Lavinian shores; he [was] much afflicted both on lands and on the deep by the power of the gods, because of fierce Juno's vindictive wrath."

File:La-cls-arma virumque cano.ogg
Recording of first four lines of the Aeneid in reconstructed Classical Latin pronunciation
  1. Traditional (19th-century) English orthography Template:Lang
  2. Modern orthography with macrons Template:Lang
  3. Modern orthography with macrons and without u and v distinction Template:Lang
  4. Modern orthography without macrons Template:Lang
  5. [Reconstructed] Classical Roman pronunciationTemplate:Citation needed
    Template:IPA
    Template:IPA
    Template:IPA
    Template:IPA

Note the elisions in Template:Lang and Template:Lang in the third line. For a fuller discussion of the prosodic features of this passage, see Dactylic hexameter.

Some manuscripts have "Template:Lang" rather than "Template:Lang" in the second line.

From Medieval Latin

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Beginning of Template:Lang by Thomas Aquinas (13th century). Rhymed accentual metre. Translation: "Extol, [my] tongue, the mystery of the glorious body and the precious blood, which the fruit of a noble womb, the king of nations, poured out as the price of the world."

  1. Traditional orthography as in Roman Catholic service books (stressed syllable marked with an acute accent on words of three syllables or more). Template:Lang
  2. Italianate ecclesiastical pronunciation:
    Template:IPA
    Template:IPA
    Template:IPA
    Template:IPA
    Template:IPA
    Template:IPA

See also

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Notes

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References

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Template:Reflist

Bibliography

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Template:Refend

Further reading

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  • Hall, William Dawson, and Michael De Angelis. 1971. Latin Pronunciation According to Roman Usage. Anaheim, CA: National Music Publishers.
  • Trame, Richard H. 1983. "A Note On Latin Pronunciation." The Choral Journal 23, no. 5: 29.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
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Template:Language phonologies

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