Latin grammar
Template:Short description Template:Clear
Template:Latin grammar Latin is a heavily inflected language with largely free word order. Nouns are inflected for number and case; pronouns and adjectives (including participles) are inflected for number, case, and gender; and verbs are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood. The inflections are often changes in the ending of a word, but can be more complicated, especially with verbs.
Thus verbs can take any of over 100 different endings to express different meanings, for example Template:Lang "I rule", Template:Lang "I am ruled", Template:Lang "to rule", Template:Lang "to be ruled". Most verbal forms consist of a single word, but some tenses are formed from part of the verb Template:Lang "I am" added to a participle; for example, Template:Lang "I was led" or Template:Lang "he is going to lead".
Nouns belong to one of three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter). The gender of the noun is shown by the last syllables of the adjectives, numbers and pronouns that refer to it: e.g. Template:Lang "this man", Template:Lang "this woman", Template:Lang "this war". There are also two numbers: singular (Template:Lang "woman") and plural (Template:Lang "women").
As well as having gender and number, nouns, adjectives, and pronouns have different endings according to their function in the sentence, for example, Template:Lang "the king" (subject), but Template:Lang "the king" (object). These different endings are called "cases". Most nouns have five cases: nominative (subject or complement), accusative (object), genitive ("of"), dative ("to" or "for"), and ablative ("with", "in", "by" or "from"). Nouns for people (potential addressees) have the vocative (used for addressing someone). Some nouns for places have a seventh case, the locative; this is mostly found with the names of towns and cities, e.g. Template:Lang "in Rome". Adjectives must agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.
When a noun or pronoun is used with a preposition, the noun must be in either the accusative or the ablative case, depending on the preposition. Thus Template:Lang "to, near" is always followed by an accusative case, but Template:Lang "from, out of" is always followed by an ablative. The preposition Template:Lang is followed by the ablative when it means "in, on", but by the accusative when it means "into, onto".
There is no definite or indefinite article in Latin, so that Template:Lang can mean "king", "a king", or "the king" according to context.
Latin word order tends to be subject–object–verb; however, other word orders are common. Different word orders are used to express different shades of emphasis. (See Latin word order.)
An adjective can come either before or after a noun, e.g. Template:Lang or Template:Lang "a good man", although some kinds of adjectives, such as adjectives of nationality (Template:Lang "a Roman man") usually follow the noun.
Latin is a pro-drop language; that is, pronouns in the subject are usually omitted except for emphasis, so for example Template:Lang by itself means "you love" without the need to add the pronoun Template:Lang "you". Latin also exhibits verb framing in which the path of motion is encoded into the verb rather than shown by a separate word or phrase. For example, the Latin verb Template:Lang (a compound of Template:Wikt-lang and Template:Wikt-lang) means "he/she/it goes out".
In this article a line over a vowel (e.g. ē) indicates that it is long.
Nouns
[edit]Number
[edit]Most Latin nouns have two numbers, singular and plural: Template:Lang "king", Template:Lang "kings". A few nouns, called Template:Lang ("plural only"), although plural in form, have a singular meaning, e.g. Template:Lang "a camp", Template:Lang "a letter", Template:Lang "a wedding".
Gender
[edit]Nouns are divided into three genders, known as masculine, feminine, and neuter. The difference is shown in the pronouns and adjectives that refer to them, for example:
- Template:Lang "the king himself" (masculine)
- Template:Lang "the queen herself" (feminine)
- Template:Lang "the war itself" (neuter)
To a certain extent, the genders follow the meanings of the words (for example, winds are masculine, tree-names feminine):
- Masculine nouns include all those referring to males, such as Template:Lang "master", Template:Lang "boy", Template:Lang "god", but also some inanimate objects such as Template:Lang "garden", Template:Lang "army", Template:Lang "custom". Words in the 2nd declension ending in -us or -er are usually masculine.
- Feminine nouns include all those referring to females, such as Template:Lang "girl", Template:Lang "woman", Template:Lang "goddess", but also inanimate or abstract nouns such as Template:Lang "tree", Template:Lang "city", Template:Lang "kindness", Template:Lang "nation". Words in the 1st declension like Template:Lang ending in -a are usually feminine, with a few exceptions such as Template:Lang "poet". Also feminine are 3rd declension nouns ending in -tās and -tiō.
- Neuter nouns (apart from Template:Lang "a prostitute (of either gender)") all refer to things, such as Template:Lang "name", Template:Lang "body", Template:Lang "war", Template:Lang "poison".
Neuter nouns differ from masculine and feminine in two ways: (1) the plural nominative and accusative forms end in -a, e.g. Template:Lang "wars", Template:Lang "bodies"; (2) the subject (nominative) and object (accusative) cases are identical.
Case
[edit]Nouns in Latin have a series of different forms, called cases of the noun, which have different functions or meanings. For example, the word for "king" is Template:Lang when it is the subject of a verb, but Template:Lang when it is the object:
- Template:Lang "the king sees" (nominative case)
- Template:Lang "(he) sees the king" (accusative case)
Further cases mean "of" (genitive case), "to/for" (dative case), and "with" (ablative case).
Nouns for people have a separate form used for addressing a person (vocative case). In most nouns for women and girls, the vocative is the same as the nominative.
Some nouns, such as the names of cities and small islands, and the word Template:Lang "home", have a seventh case called the locative, for example Template:Lang "in Rome" or Template:Lang "at home"; however, most nouns do not have this case.
The genitive, dative and ablative cases are called the "oblique" cases.
The order in which the cases are given in grammar books differs in different countries. In Britain and countries influenced by Britain, the order nominative, vocative, accusative is used as in the table below.Template:Sfn In the United States, in grammars such as Gildersleeve and Lodge's Latin Grammar (1895), the traditional order is used, with the genitive case in the second place and ablative last. In the popularly used Wheelock's Latin (1956, 7th edition 2011) and Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar (1903), however, the vocative is placed at the end.
The following table shows the endings of a typical noun of the 3rd declension.Template:Sfn If Gildersleeve and Lodge's order is preferred, click on the symbol "GL" in the seventh column in the table below; for Wheelock's order click on "Wh":
| Name of case | Use | sing. | meaning | plur. | meaning | Br | GL | Wh |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Subject | Template:Lang | a king, the king | Template:Lang | kings, the kings | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| Vocative | Addressing | Template:Lang | o king! | Template:Lang | o kings! | 2 | 5 | 6 |
| Accusative | Object, goal | Template:Lang | a king, the king (object) | Template:Lang | kings, the kings (object) | 3 | 4 | 4 |
| Genitive | of | Template:Lang | of the king, of a king | Template:Lang | of kings, of the kings | 4 | 2 | 2 |
| Dative | to, for | Template:Lang | to the king | Template:Lang | to kings, to the kings | 5 | 3 | 3 |
| Ablative | with, by, from, in | Template:Lang | with the king | Template:Lang | with the kings | 6 | 6 | 5 |
Sometimes the same endings, e.g. Template:Lang and Template:Lang, are used for more than one case. Since the function of a word in Latin is shown by ending rather than word order, in theory Template:Lang could mean either "the kings lead" or "they lead the kings". In practice, however, such ambiguities are rare.
Declensions
[edit]1st and 2nd declensions
[edit]Latin nouns are divided into different groups according to the patterns of their case endings. These different groups are known as declensions. Nouns with -a in the nominative singular, like Template:Lang "girl" are known as 1st declension nouns, and so on.
The following table shows the declension of Template:Lang "girl" (1st declension), Template:Lang "lord, master" (2nd declension masculine), and Template:Lang "war" (2nd declension neuter):Template:Sfn
| Case | feminine | masculine | neuter | Br | GL | Wh | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 sg. | 1 pl. | 2 sg. | 2 pl. | 2n sg. | 2n pl. | |||||||
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Vocative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 2 | 5 | 6 | |||
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 3 | 4 | 4 | |||
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 4 | 2 | 2 | |||
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 5 | 3 | 3 | |||
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 6 | 6 | 5 | |||
1st declension nouns are usually feminine, except for a few referring to men, such as Template:Lang "farmer" or Template:Lang "poet". The nouns Template:Lang "daughter" and Template:Lang "goddess" have dative and ablative plural Template:Lang. The locative case ends in -ae, pl. -īs, e.g. Template:Lang "in Rome", Template:Lang "in Athens".Template:Sfn
2nd declension nouns in -us are usually masculine, but those referring to trees (e.g. Template:Lang "pine tree") and some place names (e.g. Template:Lang "Egypt") are feminine. A few 2nd declension nouns, such as Template:Lang "man" and Template:Lang "boy", lack endings in the nominative and vocative singular. In the 2nd declension, the genitive plural in some words is optionally -um, especially in poetry:Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Template:Lang or Template:Lang "of the gods", Template:Lang or Template:Lang "of men".
Neuter nouns such as Template:Lang "war" have -a in the nominative plural. In neuter nouns, the vocative and accusative are always the same as the nominative; the genitive, dative, and ablative are the same as the masculine. Most 2nd declension neuter nouns end in -um but Template:Lang "poison" and Template:Lang "crowd" end in -us.
3rd declension
[edit]Third declension nouns have various patterns of declension. Some decline like the following: Template:Lang "soldier", Template:Lang "city", Template:Lang "body":Template:Sfn
| Case | masculine | feminine | neuter | Br | GL | Wh | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3 sg. | 3 pl. | 3 sg. | 3 pl. | 3n sg. | 3n pl. | |||||||
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Vocative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 2 | 5 | 6 | |||
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 3 | 4 | 4 | |||
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 4 | 2 | 2 | |||
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 5 | 3 | 3 | |||
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 6 | 6 | 5 | |||
There are some variations, however. A few, such as Template:Lang "force", have accusative singular -im and ablative singular -ī; some, like Template:Lang "fire", optionally have -ī instead of -e in the ablative singular. The genitive plural in some nouns is -um, in others -ium. (For details, see Latin declension.) 3rd declension nouns can be of any gender.
It is not usually possible to guess the genitive of a noun from the nominative: Template:Lang "leader" has genitive Template:Lang but Template:Lang "king" has Template:Lang; Template:Lang "father" has genitive Template:Lang but Template:Lang "journey" has Template:Lang. For this reason the genitive is always given in dictionaries, and can be used to deduce the remaining cases.
4th and 5th declensions
[edit]4th and 5th declension nouns are less common. They decline like the following (Template:Lang "hand", Template:Lang "knee", Template:Lang "day"):Template:Sfn
| Case | feminine | neuter | Br | GL | Wh | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4 sg. | 4 pl. | 4 sg. | 4 pl. | 5 sg. | 5 pl. | |||||||
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Vocative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 2 | 5 | 6 | |||
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 3 | 4 | 4 | |||
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 4 | 2 | 2 | |||
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 5 | 3 | 3 | |||
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 6 | 6 | 5 | |||
4th declension nouns are usually masculine, but a few, such as Template:Lang "hand" and Template:Lang "old lady", are feminine. There are only four 4th declension neuter nouns.Template:Sfn
5th declension nouns (except for Template:Lang (m) "day") are usually feminine. Template:Lang "thing" is similar to Template:Lang except for a short e in the genitive and dative singular Template:Lang.
Other nouns
[edit]In addition to the above there are some irregularly declined nouns, mostly borrowed from Greek, such as the name Template:Lang "Aeneas" (1st declension masculine).Template:Sfn
The vocative is nearly always the same as the nominative, except in 1st and 2nd declension masculine singular words, such as Template:Lang "Aeneas!" and Template:Lang "master!/lord!". Some words, such as Template:Lang "god", have no separate vocative, however.
Use of cases
[edit]Nominative
[edit]The nominative case is used for the subject of an active or a passive verb:
- Template:Lang = the king replied
- Template:Lang = the king was killed
It is also used for the complement of a copula verb such as Template:Lang "he is" or Template:Lang "he became":Template:Sfn
- Template:Lang = our king was Aeneas / Aeneas was our king
- Template:Lang = he was made king / he became king
Vocative
[edit]The vocative case is used when addressing someone:
- Template:Lang = do you order me, King Romulus, to strike a treaty?
Accusative
[edit]The accusative case is used for the object of a sentence:Template:Sfn
- Template:Lang = they killed the king
It is also used as the subject of an infinitival clause dependent on a verb of speaking or the like:
- Template:Lang = they believed that the king had been killed
It can be the complement of another word which is itself accusative:
- Template:Lang = the people made Tullus their king
It can also be used with a place name to refer to the destination:
- Template:Lang = he set out for Rome
The accusative is also used after various prepositions (especially those that imply motion towards):
- Template:Lang = the Senate sent ambassadors to the king
- Template:Lang = the consul returned to the city
Another use of the accusative is to give a length of time or distance:
- Template:Lang = he reigned for five years
- Template:Lang = five foot tall
Genitive
[edit]A genitive noun can represent possession or relationship:
- Template:Lang = the king's daughter, daughter of the king
A genitive noun can stand for the object of mental processes such as Template:Lang "I pity" and Template:Lang "I forget":Template:Sfn
- Template:Lang = I will never forget that night<ref>Cicero, Planc. 101.</ref>
A genitive noun attached to a verbal noun can stand for the object of the implied verb (called an "objective genitive"):
- Template:Lang = my longing for the great man<ref>Pliny the Younger, Ep. 6.11.1.</ref>
A genitive noun can stand for the subject of the implied verb (called a "subjective" genitive):Template:Sfn
- Template:Lang = Caesar's arrival
A frequent type of genitive is the partitive genitive, expressing the quantity of something:Template:Sfn
- Template:Lang = enough time
Dative
[edit]The dative case means "to" or "for". It is frequently used with verbs of saying or giving:
- Template:Lang = it was announced to the king
- Template:Lang = he entrusted the money to the king
It can also be used with certain adjectives:
- Template:Lang = he was very dear to the king<ref>Curtius, 3.12.16.</ref>
It is also used with certain verbs such as Template:Lang "I obey" or Template:Lang "I persuade":Template:Sfn
- Template:Lang = he was obedient to (i.e. obeyed) the king
There are also various idiomatic uses, such as the dative of possession:
- Template:Lang = what's your name?<ref>Plautus, Pseudolus 634.</ref>
Ablative
[edit]The ablative case can mean "with", especially when the noun it refers to is a thing rather than a person:Template:Sfn
- Template:Lang = he stabbed himself with a sword
Often a phrase consisting of a noun plus participle in the ablative can express time or circumstance. This is known as an "ablative absolute":Template:Sfn
- Template:Lang = with the kings driven out, i.e. after the kings were driven out
It is also frequently used with prepositions, especially those meaning "from", "with", "in", or "by":
- Template:Lang = one from (i.e. one of) the kings
- Template:Lang = with the kings
- Template:Lang = by the kings, from the kings
- Template:Lang = for/on behalf of the king
Another use is in expressions of time and place (except those that give the length of time or distance):
- Template:Lang = at that time
- Template:Lang = at this place
- Template:Lang = in a few days
The ablative can also mean "from", especially with place names:Template:Sfn
- Template:Lang = he set out from Rome
- Template:Lang = he was dislodged from his position
Locative
[edit]The locative is a rare case used only with names of cities, small islands, and one or two other words such as domus "home". It means "at" or "in":Template:Sfn
- Template:Lang = one of the two consuls remained in Rome<ref>Livy, 2.33.4.</ref>
- Template:Lang = he lived at our house for many years<ref>Cicero, Tusc. Disp. 5.113.</ref>
Adjectives
[edit]Declension of adjectives
[edit]Adjectives, like nouns, have different endings for the different cases, singular and plural. They also differ as to gender, having different forms for masculine, feminine, and neuter. (But masculine and neuter are identical in the genitive, dative, and ablative cases.)
Many adjectives belong to the 1st and 2nd declensions, declining in the same way as the nouns Template:Lang. An example is the adjective Template:Lang "good" shown below:
| Case | m. sg. | f. sg. | n. sg. | m. pl | f. pl. | n. pl. | Br | GL | Wh | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Vocative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 2 | 5 | 6 | ||
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 3 | 4 | 4 | ||
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 4 | 2 | 2 | ||
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 5 | 3 | 3 | ||
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 6 | 6 | 5 |
Other adjectives belong to the 3rd declension, in which case the masculine and feminine are usually identical. Most 3rd declension adjectives are i-stems, and have ablative singular -ī and genitive plural -ium. An example is Template:Lang "huge" shown below:
| Case | m/f. sg. | n. sg. | m/f. pl | n. pl. | Br | GL | Wh | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Vocative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 2 | 5 | 6 | ||
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 3 | 4 | 4 | ||
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 4 | 2 | 2 | ||
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 5 | 3 | 3 | ||
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 6 | 6 | 5 |
In a very few 3rd declension adjectives such as Template:Lang "sharp, keen", the feminine is different from the masculine, but only in the nominative and vocative singular.
A few adjectives (especially comparative adjectives) decline as consonant stems, and have ablative singular -e and genitive plural -um. An example is Template:Lang "better":
| Case | m/f. sg. | n. sg. | m/f. pl | n. pl. | Br | GL | Wh | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Vocative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 2 | 5 | 6 | ||
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 3 | 4 | 4 | ||
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 4 | 2 | 2 | ||
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 5 | 3 | 3 | ||
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 6 | 6 | 5 |
Participles such as Template:Lang "leading" usually have -e in the ablative singular, but -ium in the genitive plural.Template:Sfn
There are no adjectives in the 4th or 5th declensions.
The adjectives Template:Lang "only" and Template:Lang "the whole of" decline like pronouns, with genitive singular -īus and dative singular -ī:
- Template:Lang = of the whole of Greece (genitive case)
- Template:Lang = to you alone (dative case)
Agreement of adjectives
[edit]Any adjective that describes or refers to a noun must be in the same case as the noun, as well as the same number and gender. Thus in the phrase below, where rēx is in the vocative singular case, bonus must be in the vocative singular also:
- Template:Lang = o good king
Comparative and superlative adjectives
[edit]Adjectives have positive, comparative and superlative forms. Superlative adjectives are declined according to the first and second declension, but comparative adjectives are third declension.
When used in sentences, a comparative adjective can be used in several ways:
- Absolutely (with the meaning "rather" or "more than usual")
- With Template:Wikt-lang (Latin for "than")
- With an ablative meaning "than"
- With the genitive
Examples:
- Template:Lang: Cornelia is a brave girl.
The comparative adjective can be used absolutely (i.e. without any overt comparison) or with the comparison made explicit:
- Template:Lang: Cornelia is a rather brave girl.
- Template:Lang: Cornelia is a braver girl than Flavia. (Here quam is used, Flavia is in the nominative to match Cornelia)
- Template:Lang: Cornelia is braver than Flavia. (Here Flavia is in the ablative.)
- Template:Lang: Cornelia is the braver of the girls
Superlative adjectives are most frequently used absolutely, but they can also be used with the genitive Template:Lang "of all":
- Template:Lang: Cornelia is a very brave girl
- Template:Lang: Cornelia is the bravest girl of all.
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|
| Template:Lang long, tall |
Template:Lang longer, taller |
Template:Lang very long, longest |
| Template:Lang short |
Template:Lang shorter |
Template:Lang very short, shortest |
| Template:Lang beautiful |
Template:Lang more beautiful |
Template:Lang very beautiful, most beautiful |
| Template:Lang good |
Template:Lang better |
Template:Lang very good, best |
| Template:Lang easy |
Template:Lang easier |
Template:Lang very easy, easiest |
| Template:Lang great |
Template:Lang greater |
Template:Lang very great, greatest |
| Template:Lang bad |
Template:Lang worse |
Template:Lang very bad, worst |
| Template:Lang much |
Template:Lang (+ genitive) more |
Template:Lang very much, most |
| Template:Lang many |
Template:Lang more |
Template:Lang very many, most |
| Template:Lang small |
Template:Lang smaller |
Template:Lang very small, smallest |
| Template:Lang situated above |
Template:Lang higher, previous |
Template:Lang highest, last |
| (Template:Lang) before |
Template:Lang earlier |
Template:Lang first |
Detailed information and declension tables can be found at Latin declension.
Pronouns
[edit]Pronouns are of two kinds, personal pronouns and 3rd person pronouns. Personal pronouns decline as follows.
| Case | I | you sg. | himself/ herself |
we | you pl. | themselves | Br | Am | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | – | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | – | 1 | 1 | |
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 3 | 4 | |
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 4 | 2 | |
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 5 | 3 | |
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 6 | 6 |
Template:Lang can also be used reflexively ("I see myself" etc.).Template:Sfn
Template:Lang is frequently used in classical Latin for "I", but Template:Lang is never used in a singular sense.Template:Sfn
The genitive Template:Lang is used partitively (Template:Lang "each one of us"), Template:Lang objectively (Template:Lang "remembering us, mindful of us").Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
3rd person pronouns are those such as Template:Lang "this" and Template:Lang "(he) himself". The 3rd person pronouns can also be used adjectivally (except that Template:Lang "what?" when adjectival becomes Template:Lang). The declension of these pronouns tends to be irregular. They generally have -īus in the genitive singular, and -ī in the dative singular. In a few pronouns (Template:Lang "that", Template:Lang "that (of yours)", Template:Lang "it, that", Template:Lang "which", Template:Lang "anything; what?", Template:Lang "another", Template:Lang "something") the neuter singular ends in -d.
The declension of Template:Lang "that" is as follows:Template:Sfn
| Case | m. sg. | f. sg. | n. sg. | m. pl | f. pl. | n. pl. | Br | Am | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 1 | 1 | |
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 3 | 4 | |
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 4 | 2 | |
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 5 | 3 | |
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 6 | 6 |
Template:Lang "he himself" is very similar, except that the neuter singular Template:Lang ends in -m instead of -d.
Other very common 3rd person pronouns are Template:Lang "this" and Template:Lang "he, she, it; that". Like other 3rd person pronouns, these can be used either independently (Template:Lang "he") or adjectivally (Template:Lang "that man"):
| Case | m. sg. | f. sg. | n. sg. | m. pl | f. pl. | n. pl. | Br | Am | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 1 | 1 | |
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 3 | 4 | |
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 4 | 2 | |
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 5 | 3 | |
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 6 | 6 |
Before a vowel, Template:Lang and Template:Lang are pronounced as if spelled Template:Lang and Template:Lang. Template:Lang is pronounced as if spelled Template:Lang with a long first syllable.Template:Sfn
| Case | m. sg. | f. sg. | n. sg. | m. pl | f. pl. | n. pl. | Br | Am | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 1 | 1 | |
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 3 | 4 | |
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 4 | 2 | |
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 5 | 3 | |
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 6 | 6 |
Also very common is the relative pronoun Template:Lang "who, which". The interrogative Template:Lang "who? what?" and indefinite Template:Lang "anyone, anything" are similar apart from the nominative singular:Template:Sfn
| Case | m. sg. | f. sg. | n. sg. | m. pl | f. pl. | n. pl. | Br | Am | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 1 | 1 | |
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 3 | 4 | |
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 4 | 2 | |
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 5 | 3 | |
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 6 | 6 |
Like adjectives, pronouns must agree in gender, case, and number with the nouns they refer to, as in the following, where hic is masculine agreeing with amor, but haec is feminine, agreeing with patria:
- Template:Lang = this is my love, this my country<ref>Virgil, Aeneid, 4.345.</ref>
There is no indefinite article or definite article (the, a, an). Sometimes the weak determiner Template:Lang (English "that, this") can serve for the definite article:
- Template:Lang<ref>Nepos, Themistocles 2.2.</ref>
- "He persuaded the people that a fleet should be built with the money (with that money)"
Adverbs
[edit]Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs by indicating time, place or manner. Latin adverbs are indeclinable and invariable. Like adjectives, adverbs have positive, comparative and superlative forms.
The positive form of an adverb can often be formed from an adjective by appending the suffix -ē (2nd declension adjectives) or -(t)er (3rd declension adjectives). Thus the adjective Template:Lang, which means "bright", can be contrasted to the adverb Template:Lang, which means "brightly". The adverbial ending Template:Lang is used to form adverbs from 3rd declension adjectives, for example Template:Lang "quick", Template:Lang "quickly". Other endings such as -ō, -e, -tim are also found.
The comparative form of an adverb is the same as the neuter nominative singular form of a comparative adjective and usually ends in -ius. Instead of the adjective Template:Lang, which means "brighter", the adverb is Template:Lang, which means "more brightly".
The superlative adverb has the same base as the superlative adjective and always ends in a long -ē. Instead of the adjective Template:Lang, which mean "very bright" or "brightest", the adverb is Template:Lang, which means "very brightly" or "most brightly".
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|
| Template:Lang worthily |
Template:Lang more worthily |
Template:Lang very worthily, most worthily |
| Template:Lang bravely |
Template:Lang more bravely |
Template:Lang very bravely, most bravely |
| Template:Lang easily |
Template:Lang more easily |
Template:Lang very easily, most easily |
| Template:Lang well |
Template:Lang better |
Template:Lang very well, best |
| Template:Lang badly |
Template:Lang worse |
Template:Lang very badly, worst |
| Template:Lang greatly |
Template:Lang more |
Template:Lang very greatly, most, especially |
| Template:Lang a little |
Template:Lang less |
Template:Lang very little, least |
| Template:Lang much |
Template:Lang more |
Template:Lang very much, most |
| Template:Lang for a long time |
Template:Lang for a longer time, any longer |
Template:Lang for a very long time |
| Template:Lang often |
Template:Lang more often |
Template:Lang very often, most often |
Prepositions
[edit]Prepositions
[edit]A prepositional phrase in Latin is made up of a preposition followed by a noun phrase in the accusative or ablative case. The preposition determines the case that is used, with some prepositions allowing different cases depending on the meaning. For example, Latin in takes the accusative case when it indicates motion (English "into") and the ablative case when it indicates position (English "on" or "inside"):
- Template:Lang = "into the city" (accusative)
- Template:Lang = "in the city" (ablative)
Most prepositions take one case only. For example, all those that mean "from", "by", or "with" take the ablative:
- Template:Lang = "out of the city"
- Template:Lang = "(away) from the city"
- Template:Lang = "with Caesar"
Other prepositions take only the accusative:
- Template:Lang = "outside the city"
- Template:Lang = "to/near the city"
- Template:Lang = "through(out) the city"
- Template:Lang = "around the city"
Postpositions
[edit]In addition, there are a few postpositions. Template:Lang "as far as" usually follows an ablative, sometimes a genitive plural case:Template:Sfn
- Template:Lang "as far as Taurus"
- Template:Lang "as far as Cumae"
Template:Lang "towards" is usually combined with Template:Lang or Template:Lang:
- Template:Lang "towards the Alps"
Template:Lang "for the sake of" follows a genitive:
- Template:Lang "for the sake of (doing) honour"
The word Template:Lang "with" is usually a preposition, but with the personal pronouns Template:Lang "me, you sg., him/herself/themselves, us, you pl." it follows the pronoun and is joined to it in writing:
- Template:Lang "with him"
- Template:Lang "with me"
Both Template:Lang and Template:Lang "with whom" are found.
| Preposition | Case | Meaning, notes |
|---|---|---|
| Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang | + abl | from; down from; at, in, on, (of time) after, since (source of action or event) by, of |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + abl | without (archaic, cf. sine and praeter) |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | towards, to, at |
| Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | towards, against (also an adverb) |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | before (also an adverb) |
| Template:Wikt-lang | +acc | at, by, near, among; Template:Wikt-lang; before, in the presence of, in the writings of, in view of |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + gen | for the sake of (normally after its noun; simply the abl. of causa) |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | about, around, near; |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | around, near, about; regarding, concerning |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | (of place and time) near, close, round about |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | on, to this, the near side of, short of; before |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | on this side of (also an adverb) |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc & + abl |
without the knowledge of, unknown to (also an adverb). Its use with the ablative is rare. Template:Lang is a variant of this preposition. |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | against, opposite to, contrary to, otherwise, in return to, back |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + abl | in person, face to face; publicly, openly |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + abl | with |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + abl | from, concerning, about; down from, out of |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | against, opposite; towards, with regard to (sometimes placed after the noun or pronoun) |
| Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang | + abl | out of, from |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | outside of, beyond |
| Template:Wikt-lang, fīnī | + gen | up to (ablative of fīnis). Can also be a postposition.Template:Sfn |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + gen | for the sake of. Usually placed after the noun.Template:Sfn |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | into, onto, to; about, respecting; according to; against |
| + abl | in, among, at, on (space); during, at (time) | |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | below |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | between, among; during, while |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | within, inside; during; in less than |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | nearly; near, close to, just as. Can also follow the noun.Template:Sfn |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | in the direction of, to, towards; on account of, according to, because of, due to, for (the purpose of); against; facing |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + abl | without concealment, openly, publicly, undisguisedly, plainly, unambiguously |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | Under one's government or command; In one's disposal or custody; At, with, about, concerning |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | through, by means of; during |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | behind; in the rear of |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | behind (of space); afterwards, after (of time) |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + abl | before, in front of, because of |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | besides, except; beyond; more than |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + abl | for, on behalf of; before; in front, instead of; about; according to; as, like; as befitting |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + abl | far, at a distance |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | near, nearby, (figuratively) towards, about (in time) |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | near, close to, hard by; because of, on account of, for; (rare) through, by means of |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | next, along, according to |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + abl | with |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + abl | without |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | under, up to, up under, close to (of a motion); until, before, up to, about |
| + abl | (to) under, (to) beneath; near to, up to, towards; about, around (time) | |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | under, underneath; following (in order or rank); in the reign of |
| + abl | underneath, (figuratively) below inferior | |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | above, over, beyond; during |
| + abl | concerning, regarding, about | |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | above, over, more than, before |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + gen & + abl |
(with genitive and ablative) right up to, as far as, just as far as; (with ablative, of a process) up to (a given stage of); (with genitive and ablative, of limitation) to the maximum extent of, within. Used as a postposition.Template:Sfn |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | across, beyond |
| Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang |
+ acc | towards (postposition, usually combined with Template:Lang or Template:Lang)Template:Sfn |
| Template:Wikt-lang | + acc | beyond |
Numerals and numbers
[edit]The first three numbers have masculine, feminine and neuter forms fully declined as follows:Template:Sfn
| Declension | 1 m | f | n | 2 m | f | n | 3 mf | n | Br | GL | Wh | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Vocative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 2 | 5 | 6 | |||
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 3 | 4 | 4 | |||
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 4 | 2 | 2 | |||
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 5 | 3 | 3 | |||
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | 6 | 6 | 5 |
Template:Lang (one) can also be used in the plural, with plural-only nouns, e.g. Template:Lang "one camp", Template:Lang "one letter". For larger numbers plural-only nouns use special numerals: Template:Lang "two camps", Template:Lang "three camps". (See Latin numerals.)
The numbers Template:Lang (four) through Template:Lang (ten) are not declined:
- Template:Lang (4)
- Template:Lang (5)
- Template:Lang (6)
- Template:Lang (7)
- Template:Lang (8)
- Template:Lang (9)
- Template:Lang (10)
The "tens" numbers are also not declined:
- Template:Lang (20)
- Template:Lang (30)
- Template:Lang (40)
- Template:Lang (50)
- Template:Lang (60)
- Template:Lang (70)
- Template:Lang (80)
- Template:Lang (90)
The numbers 11 to 17 are formed by affixation of the corresponding digit to the base Template:Lang, hence Template:Lang. The numbers 18 and 19 are formed by subtracting 2 and 1, respectively, from 20: Template:Lang and Template:Lang. For the numbers 21 to 27, the digits either follow or are added to 20 by the conjunction Template:Lang: Template:Lang or Template:Lang or Template:Lang etc. The numbers 28 and 29 are again formed by subtraction: Template:Lang and Template:Lang. Each group of ten numerals through 100 follows the patterns of the 20s but 98 is Template:Lang and 99 is Template:Lang rather than *Template:Lang and *Template:Lang respectively.
Compounds ending in 1 2 and 3 are the only ones to decline:
- I saw 20 blackbirds = Template:Lang
- I saw 22 blackbirds = Template:Lang (where Template:Lang changes to agree with Template:Lang)
The "hundreds" numbers are the following:
- Template:Lang (indeclinable)
- Template:Lang (200)
- Template:Lang (300)
- Template:Lang (400)
- Template:Lang (500)
- Template:Lang (600)
- Template:Lang (700)
- Template:Lang (800)
- Template:Lang (900)
However, 1000 is Template:Lang, an indeclinable adjective, but multiples such as Template:Lang (2000) have Template:Lang as a neuter plural substantive followed by a partitive genitive:
- I saw a thousand lions = Template:Lang
- I saw three thousand lions = Template:Lang
Ordinal numbers are all adjectives with regular first- and second-declension endings. Most are built off of the stems of cardinal numbers (for example, Template:Lang (30th) from Template:Lang (30), Template:Lang Template:Lang (609th) for Template:Lang (609). However, "first" is Template:Lang, and "second" is Template:Lang (literally "following" the first; Template:Lang means "to follow").
Verbs
[edit]Persons of the verb
[edit]Each tense has endings corresponding to three persons in the singular, known as 1st person singular ("I"), 2nd person singular ("you sg."), 3rd person singular ("he, she, it"), and three in the plural, known as 1st person plural ("we"), 2nd person plural ("you pl."), and 3rd person plural ("they"). Unlike Ancient Greek, there is no dual number in the Latin verb.
| 1st sg. 2nd sg. 3rd sg. |
I you sg. he, she, it |
Template:Lang | I love you sg. love he, she, it loves |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pl. 2nd pl. 3rd pl. |
we you pl. they |
Template:Lang | we love you pl. love they love |
Unlike in Spanish, French, and other Romance languages, there are no respectful 2nd person forms in Latin grammar: the 2nd person singular is used even when addressing a person of high status. However, the 1st person plural is often used to mean "I".Template:Sfn
Gender
[edit]Most verbs do not show grammatical gender: the same ending is used whether the subject is "he", "she", or "it". However, when a verb is made periphrastically out of a participle and part of the verb Template:Lang "I am", the participle shows gender, for example:
- Template:Lang "he was sent"
- Template:Lang "she was sent"
Impersonal verbs, such as Template:Lang "it was reported", are neuter singular.
Voice
[edit]Latin verbs have two voices, active (e.g. Template:Lang "I lead") and passive (e.g. Template:Lang "I am led").
| Active | (doing) | Template:Lang | I lead, I am leading |
|---|---|---|---|
| Passive | (being done) | Template:Lang | I am led, I am being led |
In addition there are a few verbs (e.g. Template:Lang "I follow") which have the endings of passive verbs but with an active meaning, a relic of the older mediopassive voice. These verbs are known as deponent verbs.Template:Sfn Intransitive verbs such as Template:Lang "I am" usually have no passive voice. However, some intransitive verbs can be used in the passive voice, but only when impersonal, e.g. Template:Lang "(a battle) was fought", Template:Lang "they came" (literally, "it was come").
Mood
[edit]Latin verbs have three moods: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative:Template:Sfn
| Indicative | (actual) | Template:Lang | he leads, he is leading |
|---|---|---|---|
| Subjunctive | (potential) | Template:Lang | he may/would/should lead |
| Imperative | (command) | Template:Lang | lead! |
Ordinary statements such as Template:Lang "I lead" or Template:Lang "he came" are said to be in the indicative mood. The subjunctive mood (e.g. Template:Lang "he may lead, he would lead" or Template:Lang "he would have led") is used for potential or hypothetical statements, wishes, and also in reported speech and certain types of subordinate clause. The imperative mood (e.g. Template:Lang "lead!") is a command.
In addition Latin verbs have a number of non-finite forms, such as the infinitive and various participles.
Regular and irregular verbs
[edit]Most Latin verbs are regular and follow one of the five patterns below.Template:Sfn These are referred to as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th conjugation, according to whether the infinitive ends in Template:Lang or Template:Lang.Template:Sfn (Verbs like Template:Lang are regarded as variations of the 3rd conjugation, with some forms like those of the 4th conjugation.)
Other verbs like Template:Lang "I am" are irregular and have their own pattern.Template:Sfn
| REGULAR | I love | I see | I lead | I capture | I hear | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present tense active |
I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they |
Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Infinitive | to | Template:Lang (1) | Template:Lang (2) | Template:Lang (3) | Template:Lang (3) | Template:Lang (4) |
| I am loved | I am seen | I am led | I am captured | I am heard | ||
| Present tense passive |
I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they |
Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Infinitive | to | Template:Lang (1) | Template:Lang (2) | Template:Lang (3) | Template:Lang (3) | Template:Lang (4) |
| IRREGULAR | I am | I am able | I bring | I want | I go | |
| Present tense |
I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they |
Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Infinitive | to | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
Compound verbs such as Template:Lang "I am present", Template:Lang "I don't want", Template:Lang "I go back", etc., usually have the same endings as the simple verbs from which they are made.
Tenses
[edit]A 3rd conjugation example
[edit]Latin verbs have six basic tenses in the indicative mood. Three of these are based on the present stem (e.g. dūc-) and three on the perfect stem (e.g. dūx-).
In addition, there are four tenses in the subjunctive mood, and two in the imperative.
Further tenses can be made periphrastically by combining participles with the verbs Template:Lang "I am" or Template:Lang "I have", for example Template:Lang "I was going to lead" or Template:Lang "I have led".
The following table gives the various forms of a 3rd conjugation verb Template:Lang. As with other verbs, three different stems are needed to make the various tenses: Template:Lang in the three non-perfect tenses, Template:Lang in the three perfect tenses, and Template:Lang in the perfect participle and supine. The perfect and supine stems for any particular verb cannot always be predicted and usually have to be looked up in a dictionary.
| INDICATIVE | Active | Passive | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I lead, I am leading you lead he/she/it leads we lead you pl. lead they lead |
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I am led, I am being led you are led he/she/it is led we are led you pl. are led they are led |
| Future | Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I will lead, I will be leading you will lead he/she/it will lead we will lead you pl. will lead they will lead |
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I will be led, I will be being led you will be led he/she/it will be led we will be led you pl. will be led they will be led |
| Imperfect | Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I was leading, used to lead you were leading he/she/it was leading we were leading you pl. were leading they were leading |
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I was being led, I used to be led you were being led he/she/it was being led we were being led you pl. were being led they were being led |
| Perfect | Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I led, I have led you led he/she/it led we led you pl. led they led |
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I was led, I have been led you were led he was led we were led you pl. were led they were led |
| Future Perfect | Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I will have led you will have led he/she/it will have led we will have led you pl. will have led they will have led |
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I will have been led you will have been led he will have been led we will have been led you pl. will have been led they will have been led |
| Pluperfect | Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I had led you had led he/she/it had led we had led you pl. had led they had led |
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I had been led you had been led he had been led we had been led you pl. had been led they had been led |
| SUBJUNCTIVE | ||||
| Present | Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I may lead, I would lead you would lead he/she/it would lead we would lead you pl. would lead they would lead |
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I may be led, I would be led you would be led he/she/it would be led we would be led you pl. would be led they would be led |
| Imperfect | Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I might lead, should lead you might lead he/she/it might lead we might lead you pl. might lead they might lead |
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I might be led you might be led he/she/it might be led we might be led you pl. might be led they might be led |
| Perfect | Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I would have led, I led you would have led he/she/it would have led we would have led you pl. would lead they would have led |
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I would have been led, I was led you were led he was led we were led you pl. were led they were led |
| Pluperfect | Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I would have led, I had led you would have led he/she/it would have led we would have led you pl. would have led they would have led |
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
I would have been led you would have been led he would have been led we would have been led you pl. would have been led they would have been led |
| IMPERATIVE | ||||
| Present | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
lead! (sg.) lead! (pl.) |
Template:Lang (Template:Lang) |
be led! be led! (pl.) |
| Future | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
lead! (sg.) lead! (pl.) |
||
| 3rd person | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
he must lead they must lead |
||
| INFINITIVES | ||||
| Present | Template:Lang | to lead | Template:Lang | to be led |
| Future | Template:Lang | to be going to lead | Template:Lang | to be going to be led |
| Perfect | Template:Lang | to have led | Template:Lang | to have been led |
| Periphrastic perfect | Template:Lang | to have been going to lead | ||
| PARTICIPLES | ||||
| Present | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
(while) leading (sg.) (while) leading (pl.) |
||
| Future | Template:Lang | going to lead | ||
| Perfect | Template:Lang | having been led | ||
| GERUNDIVE | Template:Lang | (needing) to be led | ||
| GERUND | Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang |
with a view to leading of leading by leading |
||
| SUPINE | Template:Lang Template:Lang |
(he goes) in order to lead (easy) to lead |
A distinction between perfective aspect (I did) and imperfective aspect (I was doing) is found only in the past in Latin. In the present or future, the same tenses have both aspectual meanings.
Unlike in Ancient Greek or modern English, there is no distinction between perfect (I have done) and simple past (I did). The same tense, known in Latin grammar as the perfect tense, has both meanings.
The passive imperative is almost never used except in deponent verbs, e.g. Template:Lang "follow me!"
Variations
[edit]The different conjugations differ in some tenses. For example, in the future tense:
- 1st and 2nd conjugation verbs and Template:Lang have the endings Template:Lang (e.g. Template:Lang "I will love", Template:Lang "I will see", Template:Lang "I will go").
- 3rd and 4th conjugation verbs and Template:Lang and Template:Lang have the endings Template:Lang (Template:Lang "I will lead", Template:Lang "I will hear").
- Template:Lang and Template:Lang have the endings Template:Lang (Template:Lang "I will be", Template:Lang "I will be able")
In the imperfect indicative:
- Most verbs have the endings Template:Lang (e.g. Template:Lang)
- Template:Lang and Template:Lang have Template:Lang (e.g. Template:Lang "I was able")
They also differ in the present subjunctive:
- 1st conjugation verbs have the endings Template:Lang (e.g. Template:Lang "I may love")
- 2nd, 3rd, 4th conjugations have Template:Lang (Template:Lang "I may see", Template:Lang "I may lead", Template:Lang "I may hear", Template:Lang "I may go")
- Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang have Template:Lang (Template:Lang "I may be", Template:Lang "I may be able", Template:Lang "I may wish")
The imperfect subjunctive of every verb looks like the infinitive + an ending:
- Regular: Template:Lang
- Irregular: Template:Lang
In the various perfect tenses, all verbs have regular endings. However, the stem to which the perfect endings are added cannot always be guessed, and so is given in dictionaries.
Word order
[edit]Template:Main Latin allows a very flexible word order because of its inflectional syntax. Ordinary prose tended to follow the pattern of subject, direct object, indirect object, adverbial words or phrases, verb (with the proviso that when noun and verb make a compound, as Template:Lang "I attack / make an attack" the noun is generally placed close to the verb).Template:Sfn Any extra but subordinate verb, such as an infinitive, is placed before the main verb. Adjectives and participles usually directly follow nouns unless they are adjectives of beauty, size, quantity, goodness, or truth, in which case they usually precede the noun being modified. However, departures from these rules are frequent.
Relative clauses are commonly placed after the antecedent that the relative pronoun describes. Since grammatical function in a sentence is based not on word order but on inflection, the usual word order in Latin was often abandoned with no detriment to understanding but with various changes in emphasis.
While these patterns of word order were the most frequent in Classical Latin prose, they were frequently varied. The strongest surviving evidence suggests that the word order of colloquial Latin was mostly Subject-Object-Verb. That can be found in some very conservative Romance languages, such as Sardinian and Sicilian in which the verb is still often placed at the end of the sentence (see Vulgar Latin). On the other hand, subject-verb-object word order was probably also common in ancient Latin conversation, as it is prominent in the Romance languages, which evolved from Latin.Template:Sfn
In poetry, however, word order was often changed for the sake of the meter for which vowel quantity (short vowels vs. long vowels and diphthongs) and consonant clusters, not rhyme and word stress, governed the patterns. One must bear in mind that poets in the Roman world wrote primarily for the ear, not the eye; many premiered their work in recitation for an audience. Hence, variations in word order served a rhetorical as well as a metrical purpose; they certainly did not prevent understanding.
In Virgil's Eclogues, for example, he writes, Template:Lang: "Love conquers all, let us too yield to love!". The words Template:Lang (all), amor (love) and Template:Lang (to love) are thrown into relief by their unusual position in their respective phrases.
The ending of the common Roman name Mārcus is different in each of the following pairs of examples because of its grammatical usage in each pair. The ordering in the second sentence of each pair would be correct in Latin and clearly understood, whereas in English it is awkward, at best, and meaningless, at worst:
- Template:Lang: Marcus hits Cornelia. (subject–verb–object)
- Template:Lang: Marcus Cornelia hits. (subject–object–verb)
- Template:Lang: Cornelia gave Marcus a gift. (subject–verb–indirect object–direct object)
- Template:Lang: Cornelia (to) Marcus a gift gave. (subject–indirect object–direct object–verb)
See also
[edit]Bibliography
[edit]References
[edit]External links
[edit]- New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett (free ebook) (1895, 3rd edition 1918)
- Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges (1903) (public domain book)
- "Textkit.com" Website containing links to useful resources for learners of Latin.
- Ablative Absolute from Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar
- Ablative Absolute by William Harris
- A Practical Grammar of the Latin Language; with Perpetual Exercises in Speaking and Writing: For the Use of Schools, Colleges, and Private Learners, by George J. Adler
- Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography