Jump to content

Latin conjugation

From Niidae Wiki

Template:Short description Template:Latin grammar Template:About

In linguistics and grammar, conjugation has two basic meanings.<ref>Merriam-Webster online dictionary "Conjugation".</ref> One meaning is the creation of derived forms of a verb from basic forms, or principal parts.

The second meaning of the word conjugation is a group of verbs which all have the same pattern of inflections. Thus all those Latin verbs which in the present tense have 1st singular -ō, 2nd singular -ās, and infinitive -āre are said to belong to the 1st conjugation, those with 1st singular -eō, 2nd singular -ēs and infinitive -ēre belong to the 2nd conjugation, and so on. The number of conjugations of regular verbs is usually said to be four.

The word "conjugation" comes from the Latin Template:Lang, a calque of the Greek Template:Lang (syzygia), literally "yoking together (horses into a team)".

For examples of verbs and verb groups for each inflectional class, see the Wiktionary appendix pages for first conjugation, second conjugation, third conjugation, and fourth conjugation.

Number of conjugations

[edit]

The ancient Romans themselves, beginning with Varro (1st century BC), originally divided their verbs into three conjugations (Template:Lang "there are three different conjugations for verbs: the first, second, and third" (Donatus), 4th century AD), according to whether the ending of the 2nd person singular had an a, an e or an i in it.<ref>Donatus [Ars Maior], 10.16.</ref> However, others, such as Sacerdos (3rd century AD), Dositheus (4th century AD) and Priscian<ref>Priscian, Template:Lang (Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum)</ref> (c. 500 AD), recognised four different groups.<ref>Daniel J. Taylor "Latin declensions and conjugations: from Varro to Priscian" Historie Épistémologie Langage 13.2 (1991), pp. 85–93.</ref>

In modern times grammarians<ref>e.g. Gildersleeve and Lodge, 3rd edition (1895), §120.</ref> generally recognise four conjugations according to the ending of the active infinitive: namely -āre, -ēre, -ere, or -īre, for example: (1) Template:Lang "to love", (2) Template:Lang "to see", (3) Template:Lang "to rule" and Template:Lang "to capture", (4) Template:Lang "to hear". (3rd conjugation verbs ending in -iō such as Template:Lang are sometimes known as "mixed conjugation" since they use a mixture of 3rd and 4th conjugation endings.)

In addition to regular verbs, which belong to one or other of the four regular conjugations, there are also a few irregular verbs, which have a different pattern of endings. The most frequent of these is the verb Template:Lang "to be" together with its prefixed derivatives.

There also exist deponent Latin verbs, which though active in meaning have endings identical to the passive endings of ordinary verbs. Examples in the different conjugations are: (1) Template:Lang "to delay", (2) Template:Lang "to promise", (3) Template:Lang "to follow" and Template:Lang "to go back", (4) Template:Lang "to lie (tell a lie)". Some verbs are semi-deponent, using passive forms for the perfect tenses only.

Latin conjugation basic paradigm
Aspect → Imperfect Perfect
Voice → Active Passive Active Passive
Mood ↓ Indicative Subjunctive Imperative Indicative Subjunctive Imperative Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Past amābam
* I was loving		 amārem
* I might love		 — amābar
* I was being loved		 amārer
* I might be loved		 — amāveram
* I had loved		 amāvissem
* I would have loved		 amātus eram
* I had been loved		 amātus essem
* I might have been loved
Present amō
* I am loving
* I love		 amem
* I may love		 amā
* love!		 amor
* I am being loved
* I am loved		 amer
* I may be loved		 amāre
* be loved!		 amāvī
* I have loved
* I loved		 amāverim
* I might have loved		 amātus sum
* I have been loved		 amātus sim
* I may have been loved
Future amābō
* I will love		 — amātō
* you should love		 amābor
* I will be loved		 — amātor
* you should be loved		 amāverō
* I will have loved		 — amātus erō
* I will have been loved		 —

Principal parts

[edit]

A verb's full paradigm relies on multiple different stems. The present indicative active and the present infinitive are both based on the present stem.

It is not possible to infer the stems for other tenses from the present stem. This means that, although the infinitive active form normally shows the verb conjugation, knowledge of several different forms is necessary to be able to confidently produce the full range of forms for any particular verb.

In a dictionary, Latin verbs are listed with four "principal parts" (or fewer for deponent and defective verbs), which allow the student to deduce the other conjugated forms of the verbs. These are:

  1. the first person singular of the present indicative active
  2. the present infinitive active
  3. the first person singular of the perfect indicative active
  4. the supine or, in some grammars, the perfect passive participle, which uses the same stem. (Texts that list the perfect passive participle use the future active participle for intransitive verbs.) Some verbs lack this principal part altogether.

Regular conjugations

[edit]

First conjugation

[edit]

The first conjugation is characterized by the vowel ā and can be recognized by the -āre ending of the present active infinitive form. The infectum tenses conjugate as follows (see also their meaning):

Indicative Subjunctive
Present Future Imperfect Present Imperfect
Active I love I will love I was loving I may love I might love
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Passive I am loved I will be loved I was being loved I may be loved I might be loved
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

* The 2nd person singular passive Template:Lang can be shortened to Template:Lang. -re was the regular form in early Latin and (except in the present indicative) in Cicero; -ris was preferred later.<ref name=":0">Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 89.</ref>

In early Latin (Plautus), the 3rd singular endings -at and -et were pronounced -āt and -ēt with a long vowel.<ref name=":0"/>

Other forms:

The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:

  • The perfect has the suffix -ī and vowel lengthening in the stem, for example:

The verb Template:Lang "I give" is irregular in that except in the 2nd singular Template:Lang and imperative Template:Lang, the a is short, e.g. Template:Lang "I will give".

The a is also short in the supine Template:Lang and its derivatives, but the other parts of Template:Lang "I stand" are regular.

Deponent verbs in this conjugation all follow the pattern below, which is the passive of the first type above:<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge, Latin Grammar (1895), §163.</ref>

Perfect tenses

[edit]

The three Template:Lang tenses of the 1st conjugation go as in the following table:

Indicative Subjunctive
Perfect Future perfect Pluperfect Perfect Pluperfect
Active I loved I will have loved I had loved I loved I had loved
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang* Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Passive I was loved I will have been loved I had been loved I was loved I had been loved
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

In poetry (and also sometimes in prose, e.g. Livy), the 3rd person plural of the perfect indicative is often Template:Lang instead of Template:Lang. Occasionally the form Template:Lang is also found.<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 91.</ref>

In early Latin, the future perfect indicative had a short i in Template:Lang, but by the time of Cicero these forms were usually pronounced with a long i, in the same way as in the perfect subjunctive.<ref>C.J. Fordyce (1961), Catullus, note on Catullus 5.10.</ref> Virgil has a short i for both tenses; Horace uses both forms for both tenses; Ovid uses both forms for the future perfect, but a long i in the perfect subjunctive.<ref>Wackernagel (2009) Lectures on Syntax, p. 305, note 7.</ref>

The -v- of the perfect active tenses sometimes drops out, especially in the pluperfect subjunctive: Template:Lang for Template:Lang. Forms such as Template:Lang and Template:Lang are also found.

The passive tenses also have feminine and neuter forms, e.g. Template:Lang "she was loved", Template:Lang "it was announced".

Forms made with Template:Lang instead of Template:Lang and Template:Lang instead of Template:Lang are also found, for example Template:Lang and so on, but these are not common in classical Latin. See Latin tenses.

For other meanings of the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive, see Latin tenses#Jussive subjunctive.

Other forms:

Second conjugation

[edit]

The second conjugation is characterized by the vowel ē, and can be recognized by the -eō ending of the first person present indicative and the -ēre ending of the present active infinitive form:

Indicative Subjunctive
Present Future Imperfect Present Imperfect
Active I see I will see I was seeing I may see I might see
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Passive I am seen I will be seen I was being seen I may be seen I might be seen
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

The passive Template:Lang also often means "I seem".

Other forms:

The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:

In verbs with perfect in -vī, syncopated (i.e. abbreviated) forms are common, such as Template:Lang for Template:Lang.<ref name=":1">Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 90.</ref>

  • The perfect has the suffix –īvī. Example:

Deponent verbs in this conjugation are few. They mostly go like the passive of Template:Lang, but Template:Lang and Template:Lang have a perfect participle with ss:<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge, Latin Grammar (1895), §164.</ref>

The following are semi-deponent, that is, they are deponent only in the three perfect tenses:<ref name=":2">Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 114.</ref>

Third conjugation

[edit]

The third conjugation has a variable short stem vowel, which may be e, i, or u in different environments. Verbs of this conjugation end in -ere in the present active infinitive. Deponent verbs have the infinitive -ī.

Indicative Subjunctive
Present Future Imperfect Present Imperfect
Active I lead I will lead I was leading I may lead I might lead
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Passive I am led I will be led I was being led I may be led I might be led
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

The future tense in the 3rd and 4th conjugation (-am, -ēs, -et etc.) differs from that in the 1st and 2nd conjugation (-bō, -bis, -bit etc.).

Other forms:

Four 3rd conjugation verbs usually have no ending in the imperative singular: Template:Lang "lead!", Template:Lang "say!", Template:Lang "bring!", Template:Lang "do!".

Others, like Template:Lang "run!", have the ending -e.<ref name=":0"/>

There is no regular rule for constructing the perfect stem of third-conjugation verbs, but the following patterns are used:

Although Template:Lang "to give" is 1st conjugation, its compounds are 3rd conjugation and have internal reduplication:

Likewise the compounds of Template:Lang have internal reduplication. Although Template:Lang is transitive, its compounds are intransitive:<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 105.</ref>

Deponent verbs in the 3rd conjugation include the following:

There are also a number of 3rd conjugation deponents with the ending -scor:

Deponent in some tenses only is the following:<ref name=":2"/>

The following is deponent only in the infectum tenses:

Third conjugation -iō verbs

[edit]

Intermediate between the third and fourth conjugation are the third-conjugation verbs with suffix –iō. These resemble the fourth conjugation in some forms.

Indicative Subjunctive
Present Future Imperfect Present Imperfect
Active I capture I will capture I was capturing I may capture I might capture
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Passive I am captured I will be captured I was being captured I may be captured I might be captured
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

Other forms:

Some examples are:

Deponent verbs in this group include:

Fourth conjugation

[edit]

The fourth conjugation is characterized by the vowel ī and can be recognized by the -īre ending of the present active infinitive. Deponent verbs have the infinitive -īrī:

Indicative Subjunctive
Present Future Imperfect Present Imperfect
Active I hear I will hear I was hearing I may hear I might hear
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Passive I am heard I will be heard I was being heard I may be heard I might be heard
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

Other forms:

Principal parts of verbs in the fourth conjugation generally adhere to the following patterns:

  • The perfect has suffix -uī. Examples:
  • The perfect has suffix -ī and reduplication. Examples:
  • The perfect has suffix -ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples:

Deponent verbs in the 4th conjugation include the following:<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge Latin Grammar (1985), §166.</ref>

The verb Template:Lang "to arise" is also regarded as 4th conjugation, although some parts, such as the 3rd singular present tense Template:Lang and imperfect subjunctive Template:Lang, have a short vowel like the 3rd conjugation. But its compound Template:Lang "to rise up, attack" is entirely 4th conjugation.

In the perfect tenses, shortened forms without -v- are common, for example, Template:Lang for Template:Lang. Cicero, however, prefers the full forms Template:Lang to Template:Lang.<ref name=":1"/>

Irregular verb

[edit]

Sum and possum

[edit]

The verb Template:Lang "to be" is the most common verb in Latin. It is conjugated as follows:<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), pp. 66–68.</ref>

Indicative Subjunctive
Present Future Imperfect Present Imperfect
Active I am I will be I was I may be I might be
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Active I am able I will be able I was able I may be able I might be able
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

In early Latin (e.g. Plautus), Template:Lang can be found for the present subjunctive Template:Lang. In poetry the subjunctive Template:Lang also sometimes occurs.<ref name=":3">Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 68.</ref>

An alternative imperfect subjunctive is sometimes made using Template:Lang etc. See further: Latin tenses#Foret.

Other forms:

The present participle is found only in the compounds Template:Lang "absent" and Template:Lang "present".<ref name=":3"/>

In Plautus and Lucretius, an infinitive Template:Lang is sometimes found for Template:Lang "to be able".

The principal parts of these verbs are as follows:

The perfect tenses conjugate in the regular way.

For the difference in meaning between Template:Lang and Template:Lang, see Latin tenses#Difference between eram and fuī

Volō, nōlō, and mālō

[edit]

The verb Template:Lang and its derivatives Template:Lang and Template:Lang (short for Template:Lang) resemble a 3rd conjugation verb, but the present subjunctive ending in -im is different:

Indicative Subjunctive
Present Future Imperfect Present Imperfect
Active I want I will want I was wanting I may want I might want
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Active I am unwilling I will be unwilling I was unwilling I may be unwilling I might be unwilling
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Active I prefer I will prefer I was preferring I may prefer I might prefer
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

The spellings Template:Lang and Template:Lang were used up until the time of Cicero for Template:Lang and Template:Lang.<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 121.</ref>

These verbs are not used in the passive.

Other forms:

Principal parts:

The perfect tenses are formed regularly.

Eō and compounds

[edit]

The verb Template:Lang "I go" is an irregular 4th conjugation verb, in which the i of the stem sometimes becomes e. Like 1st and 2nd conjugation verbs, it uses the future -bō, -bis, -bit:<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), pp. 115–6.</ref>

Indicative Subjunctive
Present Future Imperfect Present Imperfect
Active I go I will go I was going I may go I might go
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

Other forms:

The impersonal passive forms Template:Lang "they go", Template:Lang "they went" are sometimes found.<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 116.</ref>

The principal parts of some verbs which conjugate like Template:Lang are the following:

In the perfect tenses of these verbs, the -v- is almost always omitted, especially in the compounds,<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), pp. 116, 90.</ref> although the form Template:Lang is common in the Vulgate Bible translation.

In some perfect forms, the vowels ii- are contracted to ī-: second person singular perfect Template:Lang, second person plural perfect Template:Lang; pluperfect subjunctive Template:Lang; perfect infinitive Template:Lang (the form Template:Lang is also attested).

The verb Template:Lang "to be able" has forms similar to Template:Lang.

Ferō and compounds

[edit]

The verb Template:Lang "to bring, to bear, to carry" is 3rd conjugation, but irregular in that the vowel following the root fer- is sometimes omitted. The perfect tense Template:Lang and supine stem Template:Lang are also irregularly formed.<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), pp. 117–8.</ref>

Indicative Subjunctive
Present Future Imperfect Present Imperfect
Active I bring I will bring I was bringing I may bring I might bring
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Passive I am brought I will be brought I was being brought I may be brought I might be brought
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

The future tense in the 3rd and 4th conjugation (-am, -ēs, -et etc.) differs from that in the 1st and 2nd conjugation (-bō, -bis, -bit etc.).

Other forms:

Compounds of Template:Lang include the following:<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 118.</ref> The principal parts of some verbs which conjugate like Template:Lang are the following:

The perfect tense Template:Lang, however, belongs to the verb Template:Lang:

Fīō

[edit]

The irregular verb Template:Lang "to become, to happen, to be done, to be made" as well as being a verb in its own right serves as the passive of Template:Lang "to do, to make".<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 119.</ref> The perfect tenses are identical with the perfect passive tenses of Template:Lang.

Indicative Subjunctive
Present Future Imperfect Present Imperfect
Active I become I will become I was becoming I may become I might become
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

The 1st and 2nd plural forms are almost never found.

Other forms:

Edō

[edit]

The verb Template:Lang "to eat" has regular 3rd conjugation forms appearing alongside irregular ones:<ref>Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), pp. 118–119.</ref>

Indicative Subjunctive
Present Future Imperfect Present Imperfect
Active I eat I will eat I was eating I may eat I might eat
I
you sg.
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they 		Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

Other forms:

The passive form Template:Lang "it is eaten" is also found.

The present subjunctive Template:Lang etc. is found mostly in early Latin.

In writing, there is a possibility of confusion between the forms of this verb and those of Template:Lang "I am" and Template:Lang "I give out, put forth"; for example, Template:Lang "to eat" vs. Template:Lang "to be"; Template:Lang "he eats" vs. Template:Lang "he gives out".

The compound verb Template:Lang "to eat up, consume" is similar.

Non-finite forms

[edit]

The non-finite forms of verbs are participles, infinitives, supines, gerunds and gerundives. The verbs used are:

1st conjugation: Template:Lang – to praise
2nd conjugation: Template:Lang – to frighten, deter
3rd conjugation: Template:Lang – to seek, attack
3rd conjugation (-i stem): Template:Lang – to take, capture
4th conjugation: Template:Lang – to hear, listen (to)

Participles Template:Anchor

[edit]

Template:See also

There are four participles: present active, perfect passive, future active, and future passive (= the gerundive).

  • The present active participle is declined as a 3rd declension adjective. The ablative singular is -e, but the plural follows the i-stem declension with genitive -ium and neuter plural -ia.
  • The perfect passive participle is declined like a 1st and 2nd declension adjective.
    • In all conjugations, the perfect participle is formed by removing the –um from the supine, and adding a –us (masculine nominative singular).
  • The future active participle is declined like a 1st and 2nd declension adjective.
    • In all conjugations the -um is removed from the supine, and an -ūrus (masculine nominative singular) is added.
  • The future passive participle, more usually called the gerundive, is formed by taking the present stem, adding "-nd-", and the usual first and second declension endings. Thus Template:Lang forms Template:Lang. The usual meaning is "needing to be praised", expressing a sense of obligation.
Participles
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Present active Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Perfect passive Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Future active Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Gerundive Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

Infinitives Template:Anchor

[edit]

Template:See also

There are seven main infinitives. They are in the present active, present passive, perfect active, perfect passive, future active, future passive, and potential active. Further infinitives can be made using the gerundive.

  • The present active infinitive is the second principal part (in regular verbs). It plays an important role in the syntactic construction of Accusative and infinitive, for instance.
  • The present passive infinitive is formed by adding a –rī to the present stem. This is only so for the first, second and fourth conjugations. In the third conjugation, the thematical vowel, e, is taken from the present stem, and an –ī is added.
  • The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding an –isse onto the perfect stem.
  • The perfect passive infinitive uses the perfect passive participle along with the auxiliary verb Template:Lang. The perfect passive infinitive must agree with what it is describing in number, gender, and case (nominative or accusative).
  • The future active infinitive uses the future active participle with the auxiliary verb Template:Lang.
  • The future passive infinitive uses the supine with the auxiliary verb Template:Lang. Because the first part is a supine, the ending -um does not change for gender or number.
    • Template:Lang is translated as "to be going to be praised." This is normally used in indirect speech. For example: Template:Lang<ref>Cicero, Sull. 21.</ref> "He hopes that he will be acquitted."
  • The potential infinitive uses the future active participle with the auxiliary verb Template:Lang.
    • Template:Lang is used only in indirect statements to represent a potential imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive of direct speech. It is translated with "would" or "would have". For example: Template:Lang (Quintilian)<ref>Quintilian, 5.12.3.</ref> 'it seems unlikely that he would have told a lie, if he had not been desperate'
Infinitives (with masculine endings used for participles)
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Present active Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Present passive Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Perfect active Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Perfect passive Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Future active Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Future passive Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Potential Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

The future passive infinitive was not very commonly used. The Romans themselves often used an alternate expression, Template:Lang followed by a subjunctive clause.

Supine

[edit]

Template:See also

The supine is the fourth principal part of the verb, as given in Latin dictionaries. It resembles a masculine noun of the fourth declension. Supines only occur in the accusative and ablative cases.

  • The accusative form ends in a –um, and is used with a verb of motion in order to show purpose. Thus it is only used with verbs like Template:Lang "to go", Template:Lang "to come", etc. The accusative form of a supine can also take an object if needed.
  • The ablative, which ends in a –ū, is used with the Ablative of Specification.
Supine
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Accusative Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Ablative Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

Gerund Template:Anchor

[edit]

Template:See also

The gerund is formed similarly to the present active participle. However, the -ns becomes an -ndus, and the preceding ā or ē is shortened. Gerunds are neuter nouns of the second declension, but the nominative case is not present. The gerund is a noun, meaning "the act of doing (the verb)", and forms a suppletive paradigm to the infinitive, which cannot be declined. For example, the genitive form Template:Lang can mean "of praising", the dative form Template:Lang can mean "for praising", the accusative form Template:Lang can mean "praising", and the ablative form Template:Lang can mean "by praising", "in respect to praising", etc.

Gerund
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Accusative Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Genitive Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Dative Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Ablative

One common use of the gerund is with the preposition Template:Lang to indicate purpose. For example, Template:Lang could be translated as "ready to attack". However the gerund was avoided when an object was introduced, and a passive construction with the gerundive was preferred. For example, for "ready to attack the enemy" the construction Template:Lang is preferred over Template:Lang.<ref name="eitrem">Template:Cite book</ref>

Gerundive

[edit]

Template:See

The gerundive has a form similar to that of the gerund, but it is a first and second declension adjective, and functions as a future passive participle (see Template:Slink above). It means "(which is) to be ...ed". Often, the gerundive is used with part of the verb Template:Lang, to show obligation.

  • Template:Lang "The boy needs to be praised"
  • Template:Lang means "The speech is to be praised". In such constructions a substantive in dative may be used to identify the agent of the obligation (Template:Lang), as in Template:Lang meaning "The speech is to be praised by us" or "We must praise the speech".
Gerundive
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

An older form of the 3rd and 4th conjugation gerundive ends in -undum, e.g. (Template:Lang for Template:Lang).<ref name=":0"/> This ending is also found with the gerundive of Template:Lang 'I go': Template:Lang 'it is necessary to go'.

For some examples of uses of Latin gerundives, see the Gerundive article.

Periphrastic conjugations

[edit]

Template:See Template:See There are two periphrastic conjugations. One is active, and the other is passive.

Active

[edit]

The first periphrastic conjugation uses the future participle. It is combined with the forms of Template:Lang. It is translated as "I am going to praise," "I was going to praise", etc.

Conjugation Translation
Pres. ind. Template:Lang I am going to praise
Imp. ind. Template:Lang I was going to praise
Fut. ind. Template:Lang I shall be going to praise
Perf. ind. Template:Lang I have been going to praise
Plup. ind. Template:Lang I had been going to praise
Fut. perf. ind. Template:Lang I shall have been going to praise
Pres. subj. Template:Lang I may be going to praise
Imp. subj. Template:Lang I should be going to praise
Perf. subj. Template:Lang I may have been going to praise
Plup. subj. Template:Lang I should have been going to praise

PassiveTemplate:Anchor

[edit]

The second periphrastic conjugation uses the gerundive. It is combined with the forms of Template:Lang and expresses necessity. It is translated as "I am needing to be praised", "I was needing to be praised", etc., or as "I have to (i.e., must) be praised", "I had to be praised," etc. It may also be translated in English word by word, as in "You are to be (i.e., must be) praised."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Conjugation Translation
Pres. ind. Template:Lang I am needing to be praised
Imp. ind. Template:Lang I was needing to be praised
Fut. ind. Template:Lang I will be needing to be praised
Perf. ind. Template:Lang I was needing to be praised
Plup. ind. Template:Lang I had been needing to be praised
Fut. perf. ind. Template:Lang I will have been needing to be praised
Pres. subj. Template:Lang I may be needing to be praised
Imp. subj. Template:Lang I should be needing to be praised
Perf. subj. Template:Lang I may have been needing to be praised
Plup. subj. Template:Lang I should have been needing to be praised
Pres. inf. Template:Lang To be needing to be praised
Perf. inf. Template:Lang To have been needing to be praised

Peculiarities

[edit]

Deponent and semi-deponent verbs

[edit]

Deponent verbs are verbs that are passive in form (that is, conjugated as though in the passive voice) but active in meaning. These verbs have only three principal parts, since the perfect of ordinary passives is formed periphrastically with the perfect participle, which is formed on the same stem as the supine. Some examples coming from all conjugations are:

1st conjugation: Template:Lang – to admire, wonder
2nd conjugation: Template:Lang – to promise, offer
3rd conjugation: Template:Lang – to speak, say
4th conjugation: Template:Lang – to tell a lie

Deponent verbs use active conjugations for tenses that do not exist in the passive: the gerund, the supine, the present and future participles and the future infinitive. They cannot be used in the passive themselves (except the gerundive), and their analogues with "active" form do not in fact exist: one cannot directly translate "The word is said" with any form of Template:Lang, and there are no forms like loquō, loquis, loquit, etc.

Semi-deponent verbs form their imperfective aspect tenses in the manner of ordinary active verbs; but their perfect tenses are built periphrastically like deponents and ordinary passives; thus, semi-deponent verbs have a perfect active participle instead of a perfect passive participle. An example:

Template:Lang – to dare, venture

Unlike the proper passive of active verbs, which is always intransitive, some deponent verbs are transitive, which means that they can take an object. For example:

Template:Lang – he follows the enemy.

Note: In the Romance languages, which lack deponent or passive verb forms, the Classical Latin deponent verbs either disappeared (being replaced with non-deponent verbs of a similar meaning) or changed to a non-deponent form. For example, in Spanish and Italian, Template:Lang changed to mirar(e) by changing all the verb forms to the previously nonexistent "active form", and Template:Lang changed to osar(e) by taking the participle Template:Lang and making an -ar(e) verb out of it (note that au went to o).

Defective verbs

[edit]

Defective verbs are verbs that are conjugated in only some instances.

  • Some verbs are conjugated only in the perfective aspect's tenses, yet have the imperfective aspect's tenses' meanings. As such, the perfect becomes the present, the pluperfect becomes the imperfect, and the future perfect becomes the future. Therefore, the defective verb ōdī means, "I hate." These defective verbs' principal parts are given in vocabulary with the indicative perfect in the first person and the perfect active infinitive. Some examples are:
Template:Lang (future participle Template:Lang) – to hate
Template:Lang (imperative Template:Lang) – to remember
Template:Lang – to have begun
  • A few verbs, the meanings of which usually have to do with speech, appear only in certain occurrences.
Template:Lang (plur. Template:Lang), which means "Hand it over" is only in the imperative mood, and only is used in the second person.

The following are conjugated irregularly:

Aio Template:Anchor

[edit]
Conjugation of Template:Lang
Indicative
present 		Indicative
imperfect 		Subjunctive
present 		Imperative
present
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular
First person Template:Lang — Template:Lang Template:Lang — — —
Second person Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Third person Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang —
Present Active Participle: – Template:Lang

Inquam Template:Anchor

[edit]
Conjugation of Template:Lang
Present indicative Future
indicative 		Perfect
indicative 		Imperfect
indicative
Singular Plural Singular Singular Singular
First person Template:Lang Template:Lang — Template:Lang —
Second person Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
Third person Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang

For Template:Anchor

[edit]
Conjugation of Template:Lang
Present
indicative 		Future
indicative 		Perfect
indicative 		Pluperfect
indicative 		Present
imperative
Singular Plural Singular Singular Singular Singular Plural
First person Template:Lang — Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang — —
Second person — — — — Template:Lang Template:Lang
Third person Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang — —
Present Active Participle – Template:Lang
Present Active Infinitive – Template:Lang (variant: Template:Lang)
Supine – (acc.) Template:Lang, (abl.) Template:Lang
Gerund – (gen.) Template:Lang, (dat. and abl.) Template:Lang, no accusative
Gerundive – Template:Lang

The Romance languages lost many of these verbs, but others (such as Template:Lang) survived but became regular fully conjugated verbs (in Italian, Template:Lang).

Impersonal verbs

[edit]

Impersonal verbs are those lacking a person. In English impersonal verbs are usually used with the neuter pronoun "it" (as in "It seems," or "it is raining"). Latin uses the third person singular. These verbs lack a fourth principal part. A few examples are:

Template:Lang – to rain (it rains)
Template:Lang – to snow (it snows)
Template:Lang – to be proper (it is proper, one should/ought to)
Template:Lang – to be permitted [to] (it is allowed [to])

Irregular future active participles

[edit]

The future active participle is normally formed by removing the –um from the supine, and adding a –ūrus. However, some deviations occur.

Present
active
infinitive		 Supine Future
active
participle		 Meaning
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang going to help
Template:Lang Template:Lang (but PPP Template:Lang) Template:Lang going to wash
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang going to produce
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang going to fall
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang going to cut
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang going to enjoy
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang going to be born
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang going to die
Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang going to rise

Alternative verb forms

[edit]

Several verb forms may occur in alternative forms (in some authors these forms are fairly common, if not more common than the canonical ones):

  • The ending –ris in the passive voice may be –re as in:
Template:Lang → Template:Lang
  • The ending –ērunt in the perfect may be –ēre (primarily in poetry) as in:
Template:Lang → Template:Lang
  • The ending –ī in the passive infinitive may be –ier as in:
Template:Lang → Template:Lang, Template:Lang → Template:Lang

Syncopated verb forms

[edit]

Like in most Romance languages, syncopated forms and contractions are present in Latin. They may occur in the following instances:

  • Perfect stems that end in a –v may be contracted when inflected.
Template:Lang → Template:Lang
Template:Lang → Template:Lang
Template:Lang → Template:Lang
Template:Lang → Template:Lang
Template:Lang → Template:Lang
Template:Lang → Template:Lang
Template:Lang → Template:Lang
Template:Lang → Template:Lang

See also

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]

References

[edit]

Template:Reflist

[edit]

Template:Wiktionarycat

Template:Language verbs

Retrieved from "https://wiki.niidae.com/index.php?title=Latin_conjugation&oldid=17508"