R

R, or r, is the eighteenth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ar (pronounced Template:IPAc-en), plural ars.<ref>"R", Oxford English Dictionary 2nd edition (1989); "ar", op. cit</ref>

The letter Template:Angbr is the eighth most common letter in English and the fourth-most common consonant, after Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, and Template:Angbr.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Name

The name of the letter in Latin was Template:Lang (Template:IPA), following the pattern of other letters representing continuants, such as Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, and Template:Angbr. This name is preserved in French and many other languages. In Middle English, the name of the letter changed from Template:IPA to Template:IPA, following a pattern exhibited in many other words such as farm (compare French Template:Lang) and star (compare German Template:Lang).

In Hiberno-English, the letter is called Template:IPA or Template:IPA, somewhat similar to oar, ore, orr.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Template:Anchor The letter R is sometimes referred to as the Template:Lang 'canine letter', often rendered in English as the dog's letter. This Latin term referred to the Latin Template:Angbr that was trilled to sound like a growling dog, a spoken style referred to as Template:Lang 'dog voice' (e.g. in Spanish Template:Lang 'dog').<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In Romeo and Juliet, such a reference is made by Juliet's nurse in Act 2, scene 4, when she calls the letter R "the dog's name". The reference is also found in Ben Jonson's English Grammar.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

History

Egyptian	Proto-Sinaitic	Phoenician Resh	Western Greek Rho	Etruscan R	Latin R
<hiero>D1</hiero>	File:Proto-semiticR-01.svg	File:PhoenicianR-01.png	File:Greek Rho pointed.svg	File:EtruscanR-03.svg	File:Capitalis monumentalis R.SVG

Antiquity

File:Prognatus.png

The word Template:Lang as written on the Sarcophagus of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (280 BC) reveals the full development of the Latin Template:Angbr by that time; the letter Template:Angbr at the same time still retains its archaic shape distinguishing it from Greek or Old Italic rho.

The letter Template:Angbr is believed to derive ultimately from an image of a head, used in Semitic alphabets for the sound Template:IPA because the word for 'head' was rêš or similar in most Semitic languages. The word became the name of the letter, as an example of acrophony.

It developed into Greek Template:Angbr Template:Lang (Template:Transliteration) and Latin Template:Angbr. The descending diagonal stroke develops as a graphic variant in some Western Greek alphabets (writing rho as File:Greek Rho 03.svg), but it was not adopted in most Old Italic alphabets; most Old Italic alphabets show variants of their rho between a Template:Angbr and a Template:Angbr shape, but without the Western Greek descending stroke. Indeed, the oldest known forms of the Latin alphabet itself of the 7th to 6th centuries BC, in the Duenos and the Forum inscription, still write Template:Angbr using the Template:Angbr shape of the letter. The Lapis Satricanus inscription shows the form of the Latin alphabet around 500 BC. Here, the rounded, closing Π shape of the Template:Angbr and the Template:Angbr shape of the Template:Angbr have become difficult to distinguish. The descending stroke of the Latin letter Template:Angbr has fully developed by the 3rd century BC, as seen in the Tomb of the Scipios sarcophagus inscriptions of that era. From Template:Circa, the letter Template:Angbr would be written with its loop fully closed, assuming the shape formerly taken by Template:Angbr.

Cursive

File:Caslon-specimen-1763-double-pica-black.jpg

18th-century example of use of r rotunda in English blackletter typography

File:Luca Pacioli, De divina proportione, Letter R.jpg

Letter Template:Angbr from the alphabet by Luca Pacioli, in De divina proportione (1509)

The minuscule form Template:Angbr developed through several variations on the capital form. Along with Latin minuscule writing in general, it developed ultimately from Roman cursive via the uncial script of Late Antiquity into the Carolingian minuscule of the 9th century.

In handwriting, it was common not to close the bottom of the loop but continue into the leg, saving an extra pen stroke. The loop-leg stroke shortened into the simple arc used in the Carolingian minuscule and until today.

A calligraphic minuscule Template:Angbr, known as r rotunda Template:Angbr, was used in the sequence Template:Angbr, bending the shape of the Template:Angbr to accommodate the bulge of the Template:Angbr as in Template:Angbr, as opposed to Template:Angbr. Later, the same variant was also used where Template:Angbr followed other lower case letters with a rounded loop towards the right, such as with Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, as well as to write the geminate Template:Angbr as Template:Angbr. Use of r rotunda was mostly tied to blackletter typefaces, and the glyph fell out of use along with blackletter fonts in English language contexts mostly by the 18th century.

Insular script used a minuscule which retained two downward strokes, but which did not close the loop, known as the Insular r Template:Angbr; this variant survives in the Gaelic type popular in Ireland until the mid-20th century, but has become largely limited to a decorative function.

Use in writing systems

English

Template:See also Template:Angbr represents a rhotic consonant in English, such as the alveolar approximant (most varieties), alveolar trill (some British varieties), or the retroflex approximant (some varieties in the United States, South West England and Dublin).

In non-rhotic accents, it is not pronounced in certain positions, but can affect the pronunciation of the vowel that precedes it.

Other languages

Template:Angbr represents a rhotic consonant in many languages, as shown in the table below.

Alveolar trill Template:IPA	File:Alveolar trill.ogg	Standard Dutch, Estonian, Finnish, Galician, German in some dialects, Hungarian, Icelandic, Indonesian, Italian, Czech, Javanese, Lithuanian, Latvian, Latin, Norwegian mostly in the northwest, Polish, Portuguese (traditional form), Romanian, Russian, Scots, Slovak, Swedish more frequent in northern and western dialects, as well as in Finland Swedish; Sundanese, Ukrainian, Welsh; also Catalan, Spanish and Albanian Template:Angbr
Alveolar approximant Template:IPA	File:Alveolar approximant.ogg	Dutch in some Netherlandic dialects (in specific positions of words), Faroese, Sicilian and Swedish, especially when in weakly articulated positions, such as word-final
Alveolar flap / Alveolar tap Template:IPA	File:Alveolar tap.ogg	Portuguese, Catalan, Spanish and Albanian Template:Angbr; Turkish, Dutch, Italian, Venetian, Galician, Leonese, Norwegian, Irish, Swedish and Māori
Voiced retroflex fricative Template:IPA	File:Voiced retroflex sibilant.ogg	Norwegian around Tromsø; Spanish used as an allophone of /r/ in some South American accents; Swedish especially in Central Swedish dialects, such as the dialect in/around Stockholm; Hopi used before vowels, as in raana, "toad", from Spanish rana
Retroflex approximant Template:IPA	File:Retroflex approximant.ogg	Gutnish; Hanyu Pinyin transliteration of Standard Chinese
Retroflex flap Template:IPA	File:Retroflex flap.ogg	Norwegian when followed by ⟨d⟩; Scottish English on occasion; Swedish when followed by ⟨d⟩
Uvular trill Template:IPA	File:Uvular trill.ogg	German stage standard; some Dutch dialects (in Brabant and Limburg, and some city dialects in the Netherlands); Swedish in southern Sweden; Norwegian in western and southern parts; Venetian only in the Venice area.
Voiced uvular fricative Template:IPA	File:Voiced uvular fricative.ogg	North Mesopotamian Arabic, Judeo-Iraqi Arabic, German, Danish, French, standard European Portuguese Template:Angbr, standard Brazilian Portuguese Template:Angbr, Puerto Rican Spanish Template:Angbr and 'r-' in western parts; Norwegian in western and southern parts; Swedish in southern dialects

Other languages may use the letter Template:Angbr in their alphabets (or Latin transliteration schemes) to represent rhotic consonants different from the alveolar trill. In Haitian Creole, it represents a sound so weak that it is often written interchangeably with Template:Angbr, e.g. 'Kweyol' for 'Kreyol'.

The doubled Template:Angbr represents a trilled Template:IPA in Albanian, Aragonese, Asturian, Basque, Catalan and Spanish.

Brazilian Portuguese has a great number of allophones of Template:IPAslink, such as Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink. The latter three ones can be used only in certain contexts (Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink as Template:Angbr; Template:IPAblink in the syllable coda, as an allophone of Template:IPAslink according to the European Portuguese norm and Template:IPAslink according to the Brazilian Portuguese norm). Usually at least two of them are present in a single dialect, such as Rio de Janeiro's Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink and, for a few speakers, Template:IPAblink.

Other systems

The International Phonetic Alphabet uses several variations of the letter to represent the different rhotic consonants; Template:Angbr IPA represents the alveolar trill.

Other uses

• An R rating of the Motion Picture Association film rating system denotes media, such as movies, that are intended for a restricted audience.

Related characters

Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet

• R with diacritics: Ŕ ŕ Ɍ ɍ Ř ř Ŗ ŗ Ṙ ṙ Ȑ ȑ Ȓ ȓ Ṛ ṛ Ṝ ṝ Ṟ ṟ Ꞧ ꞧ Ɽ ɽ R̃ r̃ ᵲ<ref name="L203174">Template:Cite web</ref> ꭨ<ref name="l219075">Template:Cite web</ref> ᵳ<ref name="L203174"/> ᶉ<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
• International Phonetic Alphabet-specific symbols related to R: Template:Nounderlines<ref name="L220125">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="L221021">Template:Cite web</ref> Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link ʶ ˞ ʴ
• IPA superscript letters:<ref name="L220252">Template:Cite web</ref> 𐞦 𐞧 𐞨 𐞩 𐞪
• Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet: ɼ ɿ
• Uralic Phonetic Alphabet-specific symbols related to R:<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
  • Template:Unichar
  • Template:Unichar
  • Template:Unichar
  • Template:Unichar
• Teuthonista phonetic transcription-specific symbols related to R:<ref name="Teuthonista">Template:Cite web</ref>
  • Template:Unichar
  • Template:Unichar
• Anthropos phonetic transcription:<ref name="Teuthonista"/>
  • Template:Unichar
  • Template:Unichar
  • Template:Unichar
• Otto Bremer's phonetic transcription:<ref name="Teuthonista"/>
  • Template:Unichar
  • Template:Unichar
  • Template:Unichar
• 𝼨 – Template:Angbr with mid-height left hook was used by the British and Foreign Bible Society in the early 20th century for romanization of the Malayalam language.<ref name="L221156">Template:Cite web</ref>
• ⱹ – A turned Template:Angbr with a tail is used in the Swedish Dialect Alphabet<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
• Other variations of R used for phonetic transcription: 𝼕<ref name="L220125" /><ref name="L221021" /> 𝼖<ref name="L220125" /><ref name="L221021" /> Template:Not a typo

Calligraphic variants in the Latin alphabet

• Ꝛ ꝛ – R rotunda
• Ꞃ ꞃ – Insular r (Gaelic type)
• ᫍ – Combining Insular r, as used in the Ormulum<ref name="L220268">Template:Cite web</ref>

Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets

• 𐤓 – Semitic letter Resh, from which the following letters derive:
  • Ρ ρ – Greek letter Rho, from which the following letters derive:
    • 𐌓 – Old Italic letter R, the ancestor of modern Latin Template:Angbr
      • ᚱ – Runic letter Raido
    • Р р – Cyrillic letter Er
    • 𐍂 – Gothic letter Reda

Abbreviations, signs and symbols

• ℟ – symbol for response in liturgy
• Template:Not a typo – Medical prescription
• ® – Registered trademark symbol
• ₹ – Indian rupee sign

See also

• Guttural R

External links

• Template:Commons-inline
• Template:Wiktionary-inline
• Template:Wiktionary-inline