G

G, or g, is the seventh letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages, and others worldwide. Its name in English is gee (pronounced Template:IPAc-en), plural gees.<ref>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 1976.</ref>

The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the single-storey (sometimes "opentail") File:Opentail g.svg and the double-storey (sometimes "looptail") File:Looptail g.svg. The former is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children.

History

Egyptian	Phoenician gaml	Western Greek Gamma	Etruscan C	Old Latin C	Latin G
Template:Align	Phoenician gimel	Greek Gamma	Etruscan C	Old Latin	Latin G

The evolution of the Latin alphabet's G can be traced back to the Latin alphabet's predecessor, the Greek alphabet. The voiced velar stop was represented by the third letter of the Greek alphabet, gamma (Γ), which was later adopted by the Etruscan language. Latin then borrowed this "rounded form" of gamma, C, to represent the same sound in words such as recei, which was likely an early dative form of rex, meaning "king", as found in an "early Latin inscription."<ref name="Ray-Britannica">Template:Cite web</ref> Over time, however, the letter C shifted to represent the voiceless velar stop, leading to the displacement of the letter K. Scholars believe that this change can be attributed to the influence of the Etruscan language on Latin.<ref name="Ray-Britannica" />

Afterwards, the letter 'G' was introduced in the Old Latin period as a variant of 'C' to distinguish voiced Template:IPA from voiceless Template:IPA, and G was used to represent a voiced velar stop from this point on and C "stood for the unvoiced velar only".<ref name="Ray-Britannica" />

The recorded originator of 'G' is freedman Spurius Carvilius Ruga, who added letter G to the teaching of the Roman alphabet during the 3rd century BCE:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> he was the first Roman to open a fee-paying school, around 230 BCE. At this time, 'K' had fallen out of favor, and 'C', which had formerly represented both Template:IPA and Template:IPA before open vowels, had come to express Template:IPA in all environments.

Ruga's positioning of 'G' shows that alphabetic order related to the letters' values as Greek numerals was a concern even in the 3rd century BCE. According to some records, the original seventh letter, 'Z', had been purged from the Latin alphabet somewhat earlier in the 3rd century BCE by the Roman censor Appius Claudius, who found it distasteful and foreign.<ref>Encyclopaedia Romana</ref> Sampson (1985) suggests that: "Evidently the order of the alphabet was felt to be such a concrete thing that a new letter could be added in the middle only if a 'space' was created by the dropping of an old letter."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

George Hempl proposed in 1899 that there never was such a "space" in the alphabet and that in fact 'G' was a direct descendant of zeta. Zeta took shapes like ⊏ in some of the Old Italic scripts; the development of the monumental form 'G' from this shape would be exactly parallel to the development of 'C' from gamma. He suggests that the pronunciation Template:IPA > Template:IPA was due to contamination from the also similar-looking 'K'.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Eventually, both velar consonants Template:IPA and Template:IPA developed palatalized allophones before front vowels; consequently in today's Romance languages, Template:Vr and Template:Vr have different sound values depending on context (known as hard and soft C and hard and soft G). Because of French influence, English language orthography shares this feature.

Typographic variants

Image shows the two forms of the letter g

Typographic variants include a double-storey and a single-storey g.

The modern lowercase Template:Char has two typographic variants: the single-storey (sometimes "opentail") a letter g shaped like a circle with a dangling hook and the double-storey (sometimes "looptail") a letter g shaped like spectacles. The single-storey form derives from the majuscule (uppercase) form by raising the serif that distinguishes it from 'c' to the top of the loop (thus closing the loop), and extending the vertical stroke downward and to the left. The double-storey form Template:Nowrap had developed similarly, except that some ornate forms then extended the tail back to the right, and to the left again, forming a closed bowl or loop. In the double-storey version, a small top stroke in the upper-right, often terminating in an orb shape, is called an "ear". The loop-tail form is the original one, as seen in 9th century Carolingian script; evolving over centuries of monastic copying, the open-tail variant came to predominate and it was this that Gutenberg adopted when creating the first Blackletter typefacesTemplate:Snd until that in turn was replaced by Humanist minuscule, which reasserted the closed-tail form.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

Generally, the two forms are complementary and interchangeable; the form displayed is a typeface selection choice. In Unicode, the two appearances are generally treated as glyph variants with no semantic difference. Most serif typefaces use the looptail form (for example, Template:Char) and most sans-serif typefaces use the opentail form (for example, Template:Char) but the code point in both cases is U+0067. For applications where the single-storey variant must be distinguished (such as strict IPA in a typeface where the usual g character is double-storey), the character Template:Unichar is available, as well as an upper case version, Template:Unichar.

Occasionally the difference has been exploited to provide contrast. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, opentail Template:Angbr has always represented a voiced velar plosive, while looptail Template:Angbr represented a voiced velar fricative from 1895 to 1900.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In 1948, the Council of the International Phonetic Association recognized Template:Angbr IPA and Template:Angbr as typographic equivalents,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and this decision was reaffirmed in 1993.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> While the 1949 Principles of the International Phonetic Association recommended the use of Template:Angbr for a velar plosive and Template:Angbr IPA for an advanced one for languages where it is preferable to distinguish the two, such as Russian,<ref>Template:Cite book

• Reprinted in Journal of the International Phonetic Association 40 (3), December 2010, pp. 299–358, Template:Doi.</ref> this practice never caught on.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The 1999 Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, the successor to the Principles, abandoned the recommendation and acknowledged both shapes as acceptable variants.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In 2018, a study found that native English speakers have little conscious awareness of the looptail form Template:Nowrap The authors write: "Despite being questioned repeatedly, and despite being informed directly that G has two lowercase print forms, nearly half of the participants failed to reveal any knowledge of the looptail 'g', and only 1 of the 38 participants was able to write looptail 'g' correctly".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Use in writing systems

Pronunciation of Template:Angbr by language

Orthography	Phonemes	Environment
Afrikaans	Template:IPAslink
Arabic romanization	Template:IPAslink	A dialectal sound not found in Standard Arabic. However, the digraph gh is used to romanize the Standard Arabic sound Template:IPAslink.
Azeri	Template:IPAslink
Catalan	Template:IPAslink	Except before e, i
	/(d)ʒ/	Before e, i
Template:Nwr (Pinyin)	Template:IPAslink
Danish	Template:IPAslink	Except word-initially
	Template:IPAslink	Word-initially
Dutch	Template:IPAslink or Template:IPAslink
English	Template:IPAslink	Any
	Template:IPAslink	Before e, i, y
	Template:IPAslink	Before e, i in more recent loanwords from French
	silent	Some words, initial <gn>, and word-finally before a consonant
Esperanto	Template:IPAslink
Faroese	Template:IPAslink	soft, lenited; see Faroese phonology
	Template:IPAslink	hard
	Template:IPAslink	soft
	Template:IPAslink	after a, æ, á, e, o, ø and before u
	Template:IPAslink	after ó, u, ú and before a, i, or u
	silent	after a, æ, á, e, o, ø and before a
Fijian	Template:IPAslink
French	Template:IPAslink	Except before e, i, y
	Template:IPAslink	Before e, i, y
Galician	Template:IPAslink ~ Template:IPAslink	Except before e, i, see Gheada for consonant variation
	Template:IPAslink	Before e, i, obsolete, replaced by Template:Angbr
Greek romanization	Template:IPAslink	Ancient Greek
	Template:IPAslink	Modern Greek except before ai, e, i, oi, y
	Template:IPAslink	Modern Greek before ai, e, i, oi, y
Icelandic	Template:IPAslink	soft
	Template:IPAslink	hard
	Template:IPAslink	hard, lenited; see Icelandic phonology
	Template:IPAslink	soft, lenited
Irish	Template:IPAslink	Except after i or before e, i
	Template:IPAslink	After i or before e, i
Italian	Template:IPAslink	Except before e, i
	Template:IPAslink	Before e, i
Malay	Template:IPAslink
Norman	Template:IPAslink	Except before e, i
	Template:IPAslink	Before e, i
Norwegian	Template:IPAslink	Except before ei, i, j, øy, y
	Template:IPAslink	Before ei, i, j, øy, y
Portuguese	Template:IPAslink	Except before e, i, y
	Template:IPAslink	Before e, i, y
Romanian	Template:IPAslink	Except before e, i
	Template:IPAslink	Before e, i
Romansh	Template:IPAslink	Except before e, i
	Template:IPAslink	Before e, i
Samoan	Template:IPAslink
Scottish Gaelic	Template:IPAslink	Except after i or before e, i
	Template:IPAslink	After i or before e, i
Spanish	Template:IPAslink	Except before e, i, y
	Template:IPAslink ~ Template:IPAslink	Before e, i, y
Swedish	Template:IPAslink	Except before ä, e, i, ö, y
	Template:IPAslink	Before ä, e, i, ö, y
Turkish	Template:IPAslink	Except before e, i, ö, ü
	Template:IPAslink	Before e, i, ö, ü
Vietnamese	Template:IPAslink
	/z/ ~ /j/	Before i

English

In English, the letter appears either alone or in some digraphs. Alone, it represents

• a voiced velar plosive (Template:IPA or "hard" Template:Angbr), as in goose, gargoyle, and game;
• a voiced palato-alveolar affricate (Template:IPA or "soft" Template:Angbr), predominates before Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr or Template:Angbr, as in giant, ginger, and geology; or
• a voiced palato-alveolar sibilant (Template:IPA) in post-medieval loanwords from French, such as rouge, beige, genre (often), and margarine (rarely)

Template:Angbr is predominantly soft before Template:Angbr (including the digraphs Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr), Template:Angbr, or Template:Angbr, and hard otherwise. It is hard in those derivations from γυνή (gynḗ) meaning woman where initial-worded as such. Soft Template:Angbr is also used in many words that came into English from medieval church/academic use, French, Spanish, Italian or Portuguese – these tend to, in other ways in English, closely align to their Ancient Latin and Greek roots (such as fragile, logic or magic). There remain widely used a few English words of non-Romance origin where Template:Angbr is hard followed by Template:Angbr or Template:Angbr (get, give, gift, gig, girl, giggle), and very few in which Template:Angbr is soft though followed by Template:Angbr such as gaol, which since the 20th century is almost always written as "jail".

The double consonant Template:Angbr has the value Template:IPA (hard Template:Angbr) as in nugget, with very few exceptions: Template:IPA in exaggerate and veggies and dialectally Template:IPA in suggest.

The digraph Template:Angbr has the value Template:IPA (soft Template:Angbr), as in badger. Non-digraph Template:Angbr can also occur, in compounds like floodgate and headgear.

The digraph Template:Angbr may represent:

• a velar nasal (Template:IPAc-en) as in length, singer
• the latter followed by hard Template:Angbr (Template:IPA) as in jungle, finger, longest

Non-digraph Template:Angbr also occurs, with possible values

• Template:IPA as in engulf, ungainly
• Template:IPA as in sponge, angel
• Template:IPA as in melange

The digraph Template:Angbr (in many cases a replacement for the obsolete letter yogh, which took various values including Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA) may represent:

• Template:IPA as in ghost, aghast, burgher, spaghetti
• Template:IPA as in cough, laugh, roughage
• ∅ (no sound) as in through, neighbor, night
• Template:IPA in ugh
• (rarely) Template:IPA in hiccough
• (rarely) Template:IPA in s'ghetti

Non-digraph Template:Angbr also occurs, in compounds like foghorn, pigheaded.

The digraph Template:Angbr may represent:

• Template:IPA as in gnostic, deign, foreigner, signage
• Template:IPA in loanwords like champignon, lasagna

Non-digraph Template:Angbr also occurs, as in signature, agnostic.

The trigraph Template:Angbr has the value Template:IPA as in gingham or dinghy. Non-trigraph Template:Angbr also occurs, in compounds like stronghold and dunghill.

G is the tenth least frequently used letter in the English language (after Y, P, B, V, K, J, X, Q, and Z), with a frequency of about 2.02% in words.

Other languages

Most Romance languages and some Scandinavian languages also have two main pronunciations for Template:Angbr, hard and soft. While the soft value of Template:Angbr varies in different Romance languages (Template:IPA in French and Portuguese, Template:IPA in Catalan, Template:IPA in Italian and Romanian, and Template:IPA in most dialects of Spanish), in all except Romanian and Italian, soft Template:Angbr has the same pronunciation as the Template:Angbr.

In Italian and Romanian, Template:Angbr is used to represent Template:IPA before front vowels where Template:Angbr would otherwise represent a soft value. In Italian and French, Template:Angbr is used to represent the palatal nasal Template:IPA, a sound somewhat similar to the Template:Angbr in English canyon. In Italian, the trigraph Template:Angbr, when appearing before a vowel or as the article and pronoun gli, represents the palatal lateral approximant Template:IPA. Other languages typically use Template:Angbr to represent Template:IPA, regardless of position.

Amongst European languages, Czech, Dutch, Estonian and Finnish are exceptions, as they do not have Template:IPA in their native words. In Dutch, Template:Angbr represents a voiced velar fricative Template:IPA instead, a sound that does not occur in modern English, but there is a dialectal variation: many Netherlandic dialects use a voiceless fricative (Template:IPA or Template:IPA) instead, and in southern dialects it may be palatal Template:IPA. Nevertheless, word-finally, it is always voiceless in all dialects, including the standard Dutch of Belgium and the Netherlands. On the other hand, some dialects (like Amelands) may have a phonemic Template:IPA.

Faroese uses Template:Angbr to represent Template:IPA, in addition to Template:IPA, and also uses it to indicate a glide.

In Māori, Template:Angbr is used in the digraph Template:Angbr which represents the velar nasal Template:IPA and is pronounced like the Template:Angbr in singer.

The Samoan and Fijian languages use the letter Template:Angbr by itself for Template:IPA.

In older Czech and Slovak orthographies, Template:Angbr was used to represent Template:IPA, while Template:IPA was written as Template:Angbr (Template:Angbr with caron).

The Azerbaijani Latin alphabet uses Template:Angbr exclusively for the "soft" sound, namely Template:IPA. The sound Template:IPA is written as Template:Angbr. This leads to unusual spellings of loanwords: qram 'gram', qrup 'group', qaraj 'garage', qallium 'gallium'.

Other systems

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, Template:Angbr represents the voiced velar plosive. The small caps Template:Angbr represents the voiced uvular plosive.

Other uses

• Unit prefix G, meaning 1,000,000,000 times.

Related characters

Ancestors, descendants and siblings

• 𐤂 : Semitic letter Gimel, from which the following symbols originally derive
• C c : Latin letter C, from which G derives
• Template:Lang : Greek letter Gamma, from which C derives in turn
• ɡ : Latin letter script small G
• ᶢ : Modifier letter small script g is used for phonetic transcription<ref name="L204132">Template:Cite web</ref>
• 𝼁 : Latin small letter reversed script g, an extension to IPA for disordered speech (extIPA)<ref name="L220116">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="L221021">Template:Cite web</ref>
• ᵷ : Turned g
• 𝼂 : Latin letter small capital turned g, an extension to IPA for disordered speech (extIPA)<ref name="L220116" /><ref name="L221021" />
• Г г : Cyrillic letter Ge
• Ȝ ȝ : Latin letter Yogh
• Ɣ ɣ : Latin letter Gamma
• Ᵹ ᵹ : Insular g
• ᫌ : Combining insular g, used in the Ormulum<ref name="L220268">Template:Cite web</ref>
• Ꝿ ꝿ : Turned insular g
• Ꟑ ꟑ : Closed insular g, used in the Ormulum<ref name="L220268" />
• ɢ : Latin letter small capital G, used in the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent a voiced uvular stop
• 𐞒 : Modifier letter small capital G, used as a superscript IPA letter<ref name="L220252">Template:Cite web</ref>
• ʛ : Latin letter small capital G with hook, used in the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent a voiced uvular implosive
• 𐞔 : Modifier letter small capital G with hook, used as a superscript IPA letter<ref name="L220252" />
• 𐞓 : Modifier letter small g with hook, used as a superscript IPA letter<ref name="L220252" />
• Template:Not a typo: Modifier letters are used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
• ꬶ : Used for the Teuthonista phonetic transcription system<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
• G with diacritics: Ǵ ǵ Ǥ ǥ Ĝ ĝ Ǧ ǧ Ğ ğ Ģ ģ Ɠ ɠ Ġ ġ Ḡ ḡ Ꞡ ꞡ ᶃ
• ց : Armenian alphabet Tso

Ligatures and abbreviations

• Template:Char - Paraguayan guaraní
• Template:Char - the kilogram symbol as a single character in the CJK Compatibility block

See also

• Carolingian G
• Hard and soft G
• Template:Section link

External links

• Template:Commons-inline
• Template:Wiktionary-inline
• Template:Wiktionary-inline
• Lewis and Short Latin Dictionary: G