Tok Pisin

Template:Short description Template:Infobox language

File:WIKITONGUES- Priscilla speaking Tok Pisin.webm

A Tok Pisin speaker, recorded in Taiwan

Tok Pisin (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell,<ref name="pronounce1">Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh</ref><ref name="pronounce2">Template:Cite web</ref> Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell;<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Template:IPA Template:Sfn), often referred to by English speakers as New Guinea Pidgin or simply Pidgin, is an English creole language spoken throughout Papua New Guinea. It is an official language of Papua New Guinea and the most widely used language in the country. In parts of the southern provinces of Western, Gulf, Central, Oro, and Milne Bay, the use of Tok Pisin has a shorter history and is less universal, especially among older people.

Between five and six million people use Tok Pisin to some degree, though not all speak it fluently. Many now learn it as a first language, in particular the children of parents or grandparents who originally spoke different languages (for example, a mother from Madang and a father from Rabaul). Urban families in particular, and those of police and defence force members, often communicate among themselves in Tok Pisin, either never gaining fluency in a local language (Template:Lang) or learning a local language as a second (or third) language after Tok Pisin (and possibly English). Over the decades, Tok Pisin has increasingly overtaken Hiri Motu as the dominant lingua franca among town-dwellers.Template:Sfn Perhaps one million people now use Tok Pisin as a primary language. Tok Pisin is slowly "crowding out" other languages of Papua New Guinea.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Sfn

Name

File:F. Mihatlic SVD The Jacaranda Dictionary and Grammar of Melanesian Pidgin.jpg

A 1971 reference book on Tok Pisin (referring to the language as Melanesian Pidgin)

File:Tok-Pisin New-Guinea-Pidgin Pidgin-English Melanesian-Pidgin Papua-New-Guinea-Hotel-Room-Door-Sign (DSC 3096).jpg

Hotel room door signs in Papua New Guinea

Template:Lang originates from English talk, but has a wider application, also meaning 'word, speech, language'. Template:Lang derives from the English word pidgin; the latter, in turn, may originate in the word business, which is descriptive of the typical development and use of pidgins as inter-ethnic trade languages.

While Tok Pisin's name in the language is Template:Lang, it is also called "New Guinea Pidgin"Template:Sfn in English. Papua New Guinean anglophones often call Tok Pisin "Pidgin" when speaking English.Template:Notetag This usage of "Pidgin" differs from the term pidgin (language) as used in linguistics. Tok Pisin is not a pidgin in the latter sense, since it has become a first language for many people (rather than simply a lingua franca to facilitate communication with speakers of other languages). As such, it is considered a creole in linguistic terminology.Template:Notetag

Classification

The Tok Pisin language is a result of Pacific Islanders intermixing, when people speaking numerous different languages were sent to work on plantations in Queensland and various islands (see South Sea Islander and blackbirding). The labourers began to develop a pidgin, drawing vocabulary primarily from English, but also from German, Malay, Portuguese, and their own Austronesian languages (perhaps especially Kuanua, that of the Tolai people of East New Britain).

This English-based pidgin evolved into Tok Pisin in German New Guinea (where the German-based creole Unserdeutsch was also spoken). It became a widely used lingua franca and language of interaction between rulers and ruled, and among the ruled themselves who did not share a common vernacular. Tok Pisin and the closely related Bislama in Vanuatu and Pijin in the Solomon Islands, which developed in parallel, have traditionally been treated as varieties of a single Melanesian Pidgin English or "Neo-Melanesian" language. The flourishing of the mainly English-based Tok Pisin in German New Guinea (despite the language of the metropolitan power being German) contrasts with Hiri Motu, the lingua franca of Papua, which was derived not from English but from Motu, the vernacular of the indigenous people of the Port Moresby area.

Official status

Along with English and Hiri Motu, Tok Pisin is one of Papua New Guinea's three official languages. It is frequently the language of debate in the national parliament. Most government documents are produced in English, but public information campaigns are often partially or entirely in Tok Pisin. While English is the main language in the education system, some schools use Tok Pisin in the first three years of elementary education to promote early literacy.

Regional variations

There are considerable variations in vocabulary and grammar in various parts of Papua New Guinea, with distinct dialects in the New Guinea Highlands, the north coast of Papua New Guinea, and islands outside of New Guinea. For example, Pidgin speakers from Finschhafen speak rather quickly and often have difficulty making themselves understood elsewhere. The variant spoken on Bougainville and Buka is moderately distinct from that of New Ireland and East New Britain but is much closer to that than it is to the Pijin spoken in the rest of the Solomon Islands.

There are 4 sociolects of Tok Pisin:

Template:Lang (meaning "talk of the remote areas") or Template:Lang (meaning "talk of the people of the remote areas")
Template:Lang (meaning "language of the villages"), the traditional rural Tok Pisin
Template:Lang (meaning "talk of the schools") or Template:Lang (meaning "talk of the Towns"), the urban Tok Pisin
Template:Lang (meaning "language of the colonizers", unsystematically simplified English with some Tok Pisin words<ref name="Lee">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn

Alphabet

Tok Pisin's alphabet has 21 letters, five of which are vowels, and four digraphs.Template:Sfn The letters are (vowels in bold):

a, b, d, e, f, g, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, v, w, y

Three of the digraphs (Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, and Template:Angbr) denote diphthongs, while the fourth, Template:Angbr, is used for both Template:IPA and Template:IPA.

Phonology

Tok Pisin has a smaller number of phonemes than its lexifier language, English.Template:Sfn It has around 24 core phonemes:Template:Sfn 5 vowels and around 19 consonants. This varies with the local substrate languages and the speaker's level of education. More educated speakers, and/or those where the substrate language(s) have larger phoneme inventories, may have as many as 10 distinct vowels.

Nasal plus plosive offsets lose the plosive element in Tok Pisin; e.g., English hand becomes Tok Pisin Template:Lang. Furthermore, voiced plosives become voiceless at the ends of words, so that English pig is rendered as Template:Lang in Tok Pisin.

Consonants

Consonant phonemesTemplate:Sfn
		Labial	Coronal	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink		Template:IPAlink
Plosive	voiceless	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink		Template:IPAlink
Plosive	voiced	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink		Template:IPAlink
Affricate				Template:IPAlink
Fricative	voiceless	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink			Template:IPAlink
Fricative	voiced	Template:IPAlink
Approximant		Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
Rhotic			Template:IPAlink

Voiced plosives are pronounced by many speakers (especially of Melanesian backgrounds) as prenasalized plosives.
Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA can be either dental or alveolar consonants, while Template:IPA is only alveolar.
In most Tok Pisin dialects, the phoneme Template:IPA is pronounced as the alveolar tap or flap, Template:IPA. There can be variation between Template:IPA and Template:IPA.Template:Sfn
The labiodental fricatives Template:IPA may be marginal, with contrastive use present only in heavily Anglicized varieties.Template:Sfn The use of Template:IPA vs. Template:IPA is variable.Template:Sfn There is also variation between Template:IPA and Template:IPA in some words, such as Template:Lang/Template:Lang 'five'.Template:Sfn
Likewise, there may be marginal use of Template:IPA.Template:Sfn

Vowels

Tok Pisin has five pure vowels:

Vowel phonemes
	Front	Back
Close	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
Mid	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink
Open	Template:IPAlink

Grammar

The verb has a suffix, Template:Lang (< Eng. him) to indicate transitivity (Template:Lang, "look"; Template:Lang, "see"). But some verbs, such as Template:Lang "eat", can be transitive without it. Tense is indicated by the separate words Template:Lang (future) (< Eng. by and by) and Template:Lang (past) (< Eng. been). The present progressive tense is indicated by the word Template:Lang; e.g., Template:Lang "He is eating".

The noun does not indicate number, though pronouns do.

Adjectives usually take the suffix Template:Lang (now often pronounced Template:Lang, though more so for pronouns, and Template:Lang for adjectives; from "fellow") when modifying nouns; an exception is Template:Lang "little".Template:Notetag It is also found on numerals and determiners:

Tok Pisin: Template:Lang → Eng. "one"

Tok Pisin: Template:Lang → Eng. "two"

Tok Pisin: Template:Lang → Eng. "this bloke"

Pronouns show person, number, and clusivity. The paradigm varies depending on the local languages; dual number is common, while the trial is less so. The largest Tok Pisin pronoun inventory is:Template:Sfn

	Singular	Dual	Trial	Plural
1st exclusive	Template:Lang (I) < Eng. me	Template:Lang (he/she and I) < Eng. *me two fellow	Template:Lang (both of them, and I) Eng. *me three fellow	Template:Lang (all of them, and I) Eng. *me fellow
1st inclusive	–	Template:Lang (you and I) < Eng. *you me two fellow	Template:Lang (both of you, and I) < Eng. *you me three fellow	Template:Lang (all of you, and I) < Eng. *you me fellow or *you me
2nd	Template:Lang (thou) < Eng. you	Template:Lang (you two) < Eng. *you two fellow	Template:Lang (you three) < Eng. *you three fellow	Template:Lang (you four or more) < Eng. *you fellow
3rd	Template:Lang (he/she/it) < Eng. him	Template:Lang (they two) < Eng. *two fellow	Template:Lang (they three) < Eng. *three fellow	Template:Lang (they four or more) < Eng. all

Reduplication is very common in Tok Pisin. Sometimes it is used as a method of derivation; sometimes words just have it. Some words are distinguished only by reduplication: Template:Lang "ship", Template:Lang "sheep".

There are only two proper prepositions:

the genitive preposition Template:Lang (etym. < Eng. belong), which is equivalent to "of", "from" and some uses of "for": e.g. Template:Lang "your key"; Template:Lang "They are from Gordon's".
the oblique preposition Template:Lang (etym. < Eng. along), which is used for various other relations (such as locative or dative): e.g. Template:Lang. "We went to the black market".

Some phrases are used as prepositions, such as 'Template:Lang, "in the middle of".

Several of these features derive from the common grammatical norms of Austronesian languages,Template:Notetag usually in a simplified form. Other features, such as word order, are closer to English.

Sentences with a 3rd-person subject often put the word Template:Lang immediately before the verb. This may or may not be written separate from the verb, occasionally written as a prefix. Although the word is thought to be derived from "he" or "is", it is not itself a pronoun or a verb but a grammatical marker used in particular constructions, e.g., Template:Lang is "car forbidden here", i.e., "no parking".

Tense and aspect

Past tense: marked by Template:Lang (< Eng. been):

Tok Pisin: Template:Lang

English: "And the prime minister spoke thus."Template:Sfn

Continuative same tense is expressed through: verb + Template:Lang.

Tok Pisin: Template:Lang.

English: "He/She is sleeping."Template:Sfn

Completive or perfective aspect expressed through the word Template:Lang (< Eng. finish):

Tok Pisin: Template:Lang

English: "He had got out of the boat."<ref>Template:Citation in Template:Harvnb.</ref>

Transitive words are expressed through Template:Lang (< Eng. him):

Tok Pisin: Template:Lang

English: "Finish your story now!"<ref>Template:Citation in Template:Harvnb.</ref>

Future is expressed through the word "Template:Lang" (< Eng. by and by):

Tok Pisin: Template:Lang

English: "If you take just any nails that happen to be around, those will rust."Template:Sfn

Development of Tok Pisin

Tok Pisin developed out of regional dialects of the local inhabitants' languages and English, brought into the country when English speakers arrived. Four phases in Tok Pisin's development were laid out by Loreto Todd.

Casual contact between English speakers and local people developed a marginal pidgin.
Pidgin English was used between the local people. The language expanded from the users' mother tongue.
As the interracial contact increased, the vocabulary expanded according to the dominant language.
In areas where English was the official language, a depidginization occurred (Todd, 1990).

Tok Pisin is also known as a "mixed" language. This means that it consists of characteristics of different languages. Tok Pisin obtained most of its vocabulary from English (i.e., English is its lexifier). The origin of the syntax is a matter of debate. Edward Wolfers claimed that the syntax is from the substratum languages—the languages of the local peoples.Template:Sfn Derek Bickerton's analysis of creoles, on the other hand, claims that the syntax of creoles is imposed on the grammarless pidgin by its first native speakers: the children who grow up exposed to only a pidgin rather than a more developed language such as one of the local languages or English. In this analysis, the original syntax of creoles is in some sense the default grammar humans are born with.

Pidgins are less elaborated than non-Pidgin languages. Their typical characteristics found in Tok Pisin are:

A smaller vocabulary which leads to metaphors to supply lexical units:
- Smaller vocabulary:
  Template:Lang = "election" (n) and "vote" (v)
  
  Template:Lang = "heavy" (adj) and "weight" (n)
- Metaphors:
  Template:Lang (screw of the arm) = "elbow"
  
  Template:Lang (screw of the leg) = "knee" (Just Template:Lang almost always indicates the knee. In liturgical contexts, Template:Lang is "kneel.")
  
  Template:Lang (grass of the head) = "hair" (Hall, 1966: 90f) (Most commonly just Template:Lang—see note on Template:Lang above.)
- Circumlocution:
  Template:Lang (literally "first child of Mrs Queen") = King Charles III, then known through his relation to the Queen.<ref>Template:Cite news Template:Cbignore</ref>
A reduced grammar: lack of copula, determiners; reduced set of prepositions, and conjunctions
Less differentiated phonology: Template:IPA and Template:IPA are not distinguished in Tok Pisin (they are in free variation). The sibilants Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA are also not distinguished.
All of the English words fish, peach, feast, piss, and peace would have been realised in Tok Pisin as Template:Lang. In fact, the Tok Pisin Template:Lang means "fish" (and usually has a sound closer to [[[:Template:IPA-link]]], almost like the English word piss). English piss was reduplicated to keep it distinct: thus Template:Lang means "urine" or "to urinate".

Likewise, Template:Lang in Tok Pisin could have represented English ship, jib, jeep, sieve, sheep, or chief. In fact, it means "ship".

Circumlocution

The use of circumlocutions to compensate for limited vocabulary is a familiar process in pidgin languages. Tok Pisin is no different: consider bel i no laikim kaikai "food intolerance" (literally "the belly does not like the food").

However, Tok Pisin has become especially known for its supposed use of very lengthy circumlocutions. Two commonly-cited examples relate to the piano and the helicopter.

The following Tok Pisin "names" for the piano were recorded by early 20th-century writers:<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp

big fellow box spose whiteman fight him he cry too much (1902)
box belong cry ("screaming box") (1902)
big fellow bokkes, suppose missis he fight him, he cry too much (1911)
bigfela bokis yu fait-im i krai (1921)
bikpela bokis bilong krai taim yu paitim na kikim em (1969)

Linguists observe that these circumlocutions are unstable ad hoc descriptions of an object, rather than set "words" or names. The situation is comparable to a Tok Pisin-English dictionary's definition of a Tok Pisin word with no English equivalent, such as milis being defined as "coconut milk made from shedding coconut meat in the water of a ripe nut"; nobody would suggest that this lengthy expression is the "English name" for this drink.<ref name=":0" />Template:Rp

Secondly, it is often claimed that mixmaster bilong Jesus Christ is the Tok Pisin word for "helicopter" (the Sunbeam Mixmaster was an electric food processor popular in the United States and Australia). This factoid appeared as early as 1965<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> and still circulates online today. However, the phrase appears to be a fabrication by expatriates working in New Guinea.<ref name=":0" />Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref> Linguists point out that helicopters, introduced to New Guinea by oil search teams,<ref name=":1" /> would have been far more familiar to early Tok Pisin speakers than electric food processors.<ref name=":2" />

Vocabulary

Many words in the Tok Pisin language are derived from English (with Australian influences), indigenous Melanesian languages, and German (part of the country was under German rule until 1919). Some examples:

Template:Lang = "bottom", "cause", "beginning" (from ass/arse). Template:Lang = "his birthplace". Template:Lang = "the stump of a tree".
Template:Lang = "broken", "to break down" (from bugger up). The word is commonly used, with no vulgar undertone, in Tok Pisin and even in Papua New Guinea English.
- Template:Lang = "completely broken"
Template:Lang = "bird" or more specifically a pigeon or dove (an Austronesian loan word); by extension "aeroplane"
Template:Lang = "angry" (Template:Lit)
Template:Lang = "bell", as in Template:Lang = "church bell". By extension "lunch" or "midday break" (from the bell rung to summon diners to the table). A fanciful derivation has been suggested from the "bellows" of horns used by businesses to indicate the beginning of the lunch hour, but this seems less likely than the straightforward derivation.
Template:Lang = "petrol/gasoline" (from German Template:Lang)
Template:Lang = "why?"
Template:Lang = "brown"
Template:Lang = "betelnut"
Template:Lang = "grandparent", any elderly relation; also "grandchild". Possibly from Hiri Motu, where it is a familiar form of "tubu", as in "tubuna" or "tubugu".
Template:Lang = "tree", "wood", "plant", "stick", etc.
Template:Lang = "pregnant" (Template:Lit; Template:Lang = "fertility")
Template:Lang = "hair" (from grass)
Template:Lang = "hello" (from g'day)
Template:Lang = "good"
Template:Lang = "happy"
Template:Lang = a piece of, as in Template:Lang = a piece of wood (from half)
- Template:Lang = "the other side" (from half side)
- Template:Lang = "purple" (from half red)
Template:Lang = "house" or "building" (from German Template:Lang and/or English house)
- Template:Lang = "a male/female domestic servant"; Template:Lang can also mean "servants quarters"
- Template:Lang = restaurant ("house [of] food")
- Template:Lang = "bank" ("house [of] money")
- Template:Lang = "hospital" ("house [of] sick")
- Template:Lang = "animal hospital" ("house [of] dog sick")
- Template:Lang = "place of mourning" ("house [of] cry")
- Template:Lang (vulgar) = "toilet" ("shit house"), also:
  - Template:Lang = "toilet"
  - Template:Lang = "toilet/bathroom" ("small house")
- Template:Lang = "traditional Sepik-region house with artifacts of ancestors or for honoring ancestors; Template:Lang means "ancestor spirit" or "ghost"
Template:Lang = "heavy", "problem". Template:Lang = "he has a big problem".
Template:Lang = "catch fish" (from hook)
Template:Lang = "food", "eat", "to bite" (Austronesian loan word)
- Template:Lang = "breakfast"
- Template:Lang = "dinner/supper"
Template:Lang = "chicken" (probably onomatapoetic, from the crowing of the rooster)
Template:Lang = "arrive", "become" (from come up)
Template:Lang = "get", "take" (from get them)
Template:Lang = "church", "worship" from Fijian, but sometimes Template:Lang is used for "church"
Template:Lang = "wallaby"
- Template:Lang = "kangaroo" ("big wallaby")
Template:Lang = "small boy"; by extension, "young man" (probably from the English jocular/affectionate usage monkey, applied to mischievous children, although a derivation from the German Template:Lang, meaning "little man", has also been suggested)
Template:Lang = "people" (from Template:Lang "man" and Template:Lang "woman")
Template:Lang = "it doesn't matter", "don't worry about it" (probably from German Template:Lang = "it doesn't matter")
Template:Lang = "moustache" ("mouth grass")
Template:Lang = "woman" (from the English name Mary); also "female", e.g., Template:Lang (Template:Lit) = cow.
Template:Lang = "all" (from all together)
Template:Lang = "what?", "what's going on?" (literally "like what"?); sometimes used as an informal greeting, similar to what's up? in English
Template:Lang - homosexual man, or transsexual woman
Template:Lang = "bird" (from pigeon). (The homophony of this word with the name of the language has led to a limited association between the two; Mian speakers, for example, refer to Tok Pisin as Template:Lang, literally "bird language".)
Template:Lang = "close", "lock" (from fasten)
- Template:Lang = "shut up", "be quiet", i.e. Template:Lang, literally "you close mouth" = "shut up!"
Template:Lang = "wrong", "confused", i.e. Template:Lang = "he is confused" (from English foul)
Template:Lang = "child", ultimately from Portuguese-influenced Lingua franca; cf. English pickaninny
Template:Lang = "thief, criminal" (from rascal)
Template:Lang (Template:Lang is the transitive form) = "get out, throw out, remove" (from German Template:Lang meaning "out")
Template:Lang = "frog" (probably onomatopoeic)
Template:Lang = "if" (from suppose)
Template:Lang = "know", "to do habitually" (ultimately from Portuguese-influenced Lingua franca, cf. English savvy)
Template:Lang = "remnant" (from shit)
Template:Lang = "ocean" (from salt water)
Template:Lang = "soap"; also
- Template:Lang = "toothpaste"
- Template:Lang = "shampoo"
Template:Lang = "stay", "be (somewhere)", "live" (from stop)
Template:Lang = "sister", nowadays very commonly supplanted by Template:Lang. Some Tok Pisin speakers use Template:Lang for a sibling of the opposite gender, while a sibling of the same gender as the speaker is a Template:Lang.
Template:Lang = "milk, breasts" (from Malay Template:Lang)
Template:Lang = "forbidden", but also "in-laws" (mother-in-law, brother-in-law, etc.) and other relatives whom one is forbidden to speak to, or mention the name of, in some PNG customs (from tabu or tambu in various Austronesian languages, the origin of Eng. taboo)
Template:Lang = "only, just"; "but" (from that's all)
Template:Lang = "English language"
Template:Lang = "one", "a" (indefinite article).

Example text

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Tok Pisin:

Template:Lang<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>