Mariana Trench

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Location of the Mariana Trench

The Mariana Trench is an oceanic trench located in the western Pacific Ocean, about Template:Convert east of the Mariana Islands; it is the deepest oceanic trench on Earth. It is crescent-shaped and measures about Template:Cvt in length and Template:Cvt in width. The maximum known depth is Template:Convert at the southern end of a small slot-shaped valley in its floor known as the Challenger Deep.<ref name="So, How Deep Is the Mariana Trench?">Template:Cite journal</ref> The deepest point of the trench is more than Template:Cvt farther from sea level than the peak of Mount Everest.Template:Efn

At the bottom of the trench, the water column above exerts a pressure of Template:Cvt, more than 1,071 times the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level. At this pressure, the density of water is increased by 4.96%.Template:Citation needed The temperature at the bottom is Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In 2009, the Mariana Trench was established as a US National Monument, Mariana Trench Marine National Monument.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

One-celled organisms called monothalamea have been found in the trench at a record depth of Template:Cvt below the sea surface by researchers from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography.<ref name="gaf">Template:Cite news</ref> Data has also suggested that microbial life forms thrive within the trench.<ref name="LS-20130317">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="NG-20130317">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Etymology

The Mariana Trench is named after the nearby Mariana Islands, which are named Las Marianas in honor of Spanish Queen Mariana of Austria. The islands are part of the island arc that is formed on an over-riding plate, called the Mariana plate (also named for the islands), on the western side of the trench.

Geology

File:Cross section of mariana trench.svg

The Pacific plate is subducted beneath the Mariana plate, creating the Mariana trench, and (further on) the arc of the Mariana Islands, as water trapped in the plate is released and explodes upward to form island volcanoes and earthquakes.

The Mariana Trench is part of the Izu–Bonin–Mariana subduction system that forms the boundary between two tectonic plates. In this system, the western edge of one plate, the Pacific plate, is subducted (i.e., thrust) beneath the smaller Mariana plate that lies to the west. Crustal material at the western edge of the Pacific plate is some of the oldest oceanic crust on Earth (up to 170 million years old), and is, therefore, cooler and denser; hence its great height difference relative to the higher-riding (and younger) Mariana plate. The deepest area at the plate boundary is the Mariana Trench proper.

The movement of the Pacific and Mariana plates is also indirectly responsible for the formation of the Mariana Islands. These volcanic islands are caused by flux melting of the upper mantle due to the release of water that is trapped in minerals of the subducted portion of the Pacific plate.

Research history

File:Map00148 (28286522445).jpg

Ocean trenches in the western Pacific

Template:See also The trench was first sounded during the Challenger expedition in 1875 using a weighted rope, which recorded a depth of Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In 1877, a map was published called Tiefenkarte des Grossen Ozeans ("Depth map of the Great Ocean") by Petermann, which showed a Challenger Tief ("Challenger deep") at the location of that sounding. In 1899, Template:USS, a converted collier, recorded a depth of Template:Convert.<ref name="Theberge">Template:Cite web</ref>

In 1951, under Chief Scientist Thomas Gaskell, Challenger II surveyed the trench using echo sounding, a much more precise and vastly easier way to measure depth than the sounding equipment and drag lines used in the original expedition. During this survey, the deepest part of the trench was recorded when the Challenger II measured a depth of Template:Convert at Template:Coord,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> known as the Challenger Deep.<ref name="marianatrench.com">Template:Cite web</ref>

In 1957, the Soviet vessel Template:Ship reported a depth of Template:Cvt at a location dubbed the Mariana Hollow.<ref name="mariana_britannica">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>Template:Better source needed

In 1962, the surface ship M.V. Spencer F. Baird recorded a maximum depth of Template:Cvt using precision depth gauges.

In 1984, the Japanese survey vessel Takuyō (拓洋) collected data from the Mariana Trench using a narrow, multi-beam echo sounder; it reported a maximum depth of Template:Convert, also reported as Template:Cvt.<ref name="Tani">Template:Cite web</ref> Remotely Operated Vehicle KAIKO reached the deepest area of the Mariana Trench and made the deepest diving record of Template:Cvt on 24 March 1995.<ref>Development and Construction of Launcher System of 10000m‐Class Remotely Operated Vehicle KAIKO Template:Webarchive Mitsubishi Heavy Industry</ref>

During surveys carried out between 1997 and 2001, a spot was found along the Mariana Trench that had a depth similar to the Challenger Deep, possibly even deeper. It was discovered while scientists from the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology were completing a survey around Guam; they used a sonar mapping system towed behind the research ship to conduct the survey. This new spot was named the HMRG (Hawaii Mapping Research Group) Deep, after the group of scientists who discovered it.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

On 1 June 2009, mapping aboard the Template:Ship (mothership of the Nereus vehicle), indicated a spot with a depth of Template:Cvt. The sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep was possible by its Simrad EM120 sonar multibeam bathymetry system for deep water. The sonar system uses phase and amplitude bottom detection, with an accuracy of better than 0.2% of water depth across the entire swath (implying that the depth figure is accurate to ± Template:Convert).<ref name="Daily Reports for R/V KILO MOANA">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Scientic Equipment aboard the R/V KILO MOANA">Template:Cite news</ref>

In 2011, it was announced at the American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting that a US Navy hydrographic ship equipped with a multibeam echosounder conducted a survey which mapped the entire trench to Template:Cvt resolution.<ref name="smmt">Template:Cite news Template:Cbignore</ref> The mapping revealed the existence of four rocky outcrops thought to be former seamounts.<ref name="fourbrid">Template:Cite magazine</ref>

The Mariana Trench was a site chosen by researchers at Washington University in St. Louis and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in 2012 for a seismic survey to investigate the subsurface water cycle. Using both ocean-bottom seismometers and hydrophones, the scientists were able to map structures as deep as Template:Convert beneath the surface.<ref name="ssatmt">Template:Cite news</ref>

Descents

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File:Bathyscaphe Trieste.jpg

The bathyscaphe Trieste (designed by Auguste Piccard), the first crewed vehicle to reach the bottom of the Mariana Trench<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

As of 2022, 22 crewed descents and seven uncrewed descents have been achieved. The first was the crewed descent by Swiss-designed, Italian-built, United States Navy-owned bathyscaphe Trieste, which reached the bottom at 1:06 pm on 23 January 1960, with Don Walsh and Jacques Piccard on board.<ref name="marianatrench.com" /><ref name="eahapr"/> Iron shot was used for ballast, with gasoline for buoyancy.<ref name="marianatrench.com" /> The onboard systems indicated a depth of Template:Convert,<ref name=NOAA_Man_at_the_Deepest_Depth>Template:Cite web</ref> but this was later revised to Template:Convert.<ref name="britannica-bathyscaphe">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> The depth was estimated from a conversion of pressure measured and calculations based on the water density from sea surface to seabed.<ref name="eahapr">Template:Cite web</ref>

This was followed by the uncrewed ROVs Kaikō in 1996 and Nereus in 2009. The first three expeditions directly measured very similar depths of Template:Cvt.<ref name="jamstec">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="bbc20090603">Template:Cite news</ref> The fourth was made by Canadian film director James Cameron on 26 March 2012. He reached the bottom of the Mariana Trench in the submersible vessel Deepsea Challenger, diving to a depth of Template:Cvt.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="MSNBC-20120325">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="NYT-20120325">Template:Cite news</ref>

In July 2015, members of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Oregon State University, and the Coast Guard submerged a hydrophone into the deepest part of the Mariana Trench, the Challenger Deep, never having previously deployed one past a mile. The titanium-shelled hydrophone was designed to withstand the immense pressure Template:Cvt under.<ref name="newscomau20160307">Template:Cite news</ref> Although researchers were unable to retrieve the hydrophone until November, the data capacity was full within the first 23 days. After months of analyzing the sounds, the experts were surprised to pick up natural sounds like earthquakes, typhoons, baleen whales, and machine-made sounds such as boats.<ref name="NPR4Mar2016">Template:Cite news</ref> Due to the mission's success, the researchers announced plans to deploy a second hydrophone in 2017 for an extended period of time.

Victor Vescovo achieved a new record descent to Template:Cvt on 28 April 2019 using the DSV Limiting Factor, a Triton 36000/2 model manufactured by Florida-based Triton Submarines. He dived four times between 28 April and 5 May 2019, becoming the first person to dive into Challenger Deep more than once.<ref name="fivedeep20190513">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="eos20190703">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="newat20190515">Template:Cite news</ref>

On 8 May 2020, a joint project between the Russian shipbuilders, scientific teams of the Russian Academy of Sciences with the support of the Russian Foundation for Advanced Research Projects and the Pacific Fleet submerged the autonomous underwater vehicle Vityaz-D to the bottom of the Mariana Trench at a depth of Template:Cvt. Vityaz-D is the first underwater vehicle to operate autonomously at the extreme depths of the Mariana Trench. The duration of the mission, excluding diving and surfacing, was more than 3 hours.<ref name="rgo20200513">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="tass20200610">Template:Cite news</ref>

On 10 November 2020, the Chinese submersible Fendouzhe reached the bottom of the Mariana Trench at a depth of Template:Cvt.<ref name="cnn20201111">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="cctv20201110">Template:Cite news</ref>

Life

The expedition conducted in 1960 claimed to have observed, with great surprise because of the high pressure, large creatures living at the bottom, such as a flatfish about Template:Cvt long,<ref name="NOAA_Man_at_the_Deepest_Depth"/> and shrimp.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> According to Piccard, "The bottom appeared light and clear, a waste of firm diatomaceous ooze".<ref name=NOAA_Man_at_the_Deepest_Depth/> Many marine biologists are now skeptical of the supposed sighting of the flatfish, and it is suggested that the creature may instead have been a sea cucumber.<ref>"James Cameron dives deep for Avatar" Template:Webarchive, Guardian, 18 January 2011</ref><ref>"James Cameron heads into the abyss" Template:Webarchive, Nature, 19 March 2012</ref> During the second expedition, the uncrewed vehicle Kaikō collected mud samples from the seabed.<ref name="snw">Template:Cite book</ref> Tiny organisms were found to be living in those samples.

In July 2011, a research expedition deployed untethered landers, called drop cams, equipped with digital video cameras and lights to explore this deep-sea region. Among many other living organisms, some gigantic single-celled foraminiferans with a size of more than Template:Convert, belonging to the class of monothalamea, were observed.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Monothalamea are noteworthy for their size, their extreme abundance on the seafloor, and their role as hosts for a variety of organisms.

In December 2014, a new species of snailfish was discovered at a depth of Template:Cvt, breaking the previous record for the deepest living fish seen on video.<ref name=BBCDeept>Template:Cite web</ref>

During the 2014 expedition, several new species were filmed, including huge amphipods known as supergiants. Deep-sea gigantism is the process where species grow larger than their shallow-water relatives.<ref name=BBCDeept/>

In May 2017, an unidentified type of snailfish was filmed at a depth of Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Pollution

In 2016, a research expedition looked at the chemical makeup of crustacean scavengers collected from the range of Template:Cvt within the trench. Within these organisms, the researchers found extremely elevated concentrations of PCBs, a chemical toxin banned in the 1970s for its environmental harm, concentrated at all depths within the sediment of the trench.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Further research has found that amphipods also ingest microplastics, with 100% of amphipods having at least one piece of synthetic material in their stomachs.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In 2019, Victor Vescovo reported finding a plastic bag and candy wrappers at the bottom of the trench.<ref name="CNNMay2019">Template:Cite news</ref> That year, Scientific American also reported that carbon-14 from nuclear bomb testing has been found in the bodies of aquatic animals found in the trench.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Possible nuclear waste disposal site

Like other oceanic trenches, the Mariana Trench has been proposed as a site for nuclear waste disposal<ref name="isbn0-387-95560-7"/><ref name="isbn0-7546-7133-X"/> in the hope that tectonic plate subduction occurring at the site might eventually push the nuclear waste deep into the Earth's mantle, the second layer of the Earth. In 1979 Japan planned to dump low-level nuclear wastes near Maug, in the Northern Marianas.<ref>Branch, J. B. (1984). The waste bin: nuclear waste dumping and storage in the Pacific. Ambio, 327-330.</ref> However, ocean dumping of nuclear waste is prohibited by international law.<ref name="isbn0-387-95560-7">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="isbn0-7546-7133-X">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Furthermore, plate subduction zones are associated with very large megathrust earthquakes, the effects of which are unpredictable for the safety of long-term disposal of nuclear wastes within the hadopelagic ecosystem.<ref name="isbn0-7546-7133-X"/>