Luxembourgish
Template:Short description Template:About Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox language Luxembourgish (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell; also Luxemburgish,<ref name="od1">Template:Cite web</ref> Luxembourgian,<ref>
- Template:Cite journal
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book</ref> Letzebu(e)rgesch;<ref name="od2">Template:Cite web</ref> Template:Langx Template:IPA) is a West Germanic language that is spoken mainly in Luxembourg. About 400,000 people speak Luxembourgish worldwide.<ref name=speakers>Template:Cite web</ref>
The language is standardized and officially the national language of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. As such, Luxembourgish is different from the German language also used in the Grand Duchy. The German language exists in a national standard variety of Luxembourg, which is slightly different from the standard varieties in Germany, Austria or Switzerland. Another important language of Luxembourg is French, which had a certain influence on both the national language, Luxembourgish, and the Luxembourg national variety of German. Luxembourgish, German and French are the three official languages (Amtssprachen) of Luxembourg.
As a standard form of the Moselle Franconian language, Luxembourgish has similarities with other High German dialects and the wider group of West Germanic languages. The status of Luxembourgish as the national language of Luxembourg and the existence there of a regulatory body<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> have removed Luxembourgish, at least in part, from the domain of Standard German, its traditional Template:Lang. It is also related to the Transylvanian Saxon dialect spoken by the Transylvanian Saxons in Transylvania, contemporary central Romania.
History
[edit]Luxembourgish was considered a German dialect like many others until about World War II but then the language underwent ausbau, creating its own standard form in vocabulary, grammar, and spelling and therefore is seen today as an independent language. Luxembourgish managed to gain linguistic autonomy against a vigorous One Standard German Axiom by being framed as an independent language with a name rather than as a national pluricentric standard variety of German.
As Luxembourgish has a maximum of some 285,000<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> native speakers; resources in the language, like books, newspapers, magazines, television, internet, etc., are limited. Since most Luxembourgers also speak Standard German and French, there is strong competition with these languages, which both have large language resources. Because of this, the use of Luxembourgish remains limited.
Language family
[edit]Luxembourgish belongs to the West Central German group of the High German languages and is the primary example of a Moselle Franconian language. Furthermore, it is closely related to Transylvanian Saxon which has been spoken since the High Middle Ages by the Transylvanian Saxons in Transylvania, present-day central Romania.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Speech
[edit]
Luxembourgish is considered the national language of Luxembourg and also one of the three administrative languages, alongside German and French.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In Luxembourg, 77% of residents can speak Luxembourgish,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and it is the primary language of 48% of the population.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is also spoken in the Arelerland region of Belgium (part of the Province of Luxembourg) and in small parts of Lorraine in France.
In the German Eifel and Hunsrück regions, similar local Moselle Franconian dialects of German are spoken. The language is also spoken by a few descendants of Luxembourg immigrants in the United States and Canada.
Other Moselle Franconian dialects are spoken by ethnic Germans long settled in Transylvania, Romania (Siebenbürgen).
Moselle Franconian dialects outside the Luxembourg state border tend to have far fewer French loanwords, and these mostly remain from the French Revolution.
The political party that places the greatest importance on promoting, using and preserving Luxembourgish is the Alternative Democratic Reform Party (ADR) and its electoral success in the 1999 election pushed the CSV-DP government to make knowledge of it a criterion for naturalisation.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is currently also the only political party in Luxembourg that wishes to implement written laws also in Luxembourgish and that wants Luxembourgish to be an officially recognized language of the European Union.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In this context, in 2005, then-Deputy Prime Minister Jean Asselborn of the LSAP rejected a demand made by the ADR to make Luxembourgish an official language of the EU, citing financial reasons and the sufficiency of official German and French.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A similar proposal by the ADR was rejected by the Chamber of Deputies in 2024.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Varieties
[edit]There are several distinct dialect forms of Luxembourgish including Areler (from Arlon), Eechternoacher (Echternach), Dikrecher (Diekirch), Kliärrwer (Clervaux), Miseler (Moselle), Stater (Luxembourg City), Veiner (Vianden), Minetter (Southwest Luxembourg) and Weelzer (Wiltz). Further small vocabulary differences may be seen even between small villages. These varieties are grouped into North, East, South, and Center dialects which can be automatically categorised with a correctness of about 80%.<ref>Nina Hosseini-Kivanani, Christoph Schommer, Peter Gilles. 2025. "Voices of Luxembourg: Tackling Dialect Diversity in a Low-Resource Setting". Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Resources and Representations for Under-Resourced Languages and Domains (RESOURCEFUL 2025). Tallinn.</ref>
Increasing mobility of the population and the dissemination of the language through mass media such as radio and television are leading to a gradual standardisation towards a "Standard Luxembourgish" through the process of koineization.<ref name="Ammon, 2014">Ammon, Ulrich - Die Stellung der deutschen Sprache in der Welt (de Gruyter Mouton); Template:ISBN</ref>
Surrounding languages
[edit]There is no distinct geographic boundary between the use of Luxembourgish and the use of other closely related High German dialects (for example, Lorraine Franconian); it instead forms a dialect continuum of gradual change.
Spoken Luxembourgish is relatively hard to understand for speakers of German who are generally not familiar with Moselle Franconian dialects (or at least other West Central German dialects). They can usually read the language to some degree. For those Germans familiar with Moselle Franconian dialects, it is relatively easy to understand and speak Luxembourgish as far as the everyday vocabulary is concerned.<ref name="Ammon, 2014"/> The large number of French loanwords in Luxembourgish may hamper communication about certain topics or with certain speakers (those who use many terms taken from French).
Orthography
[edit]Standardisation
[edit]A number of proposals for standardising the orthography of Luxembourgish can be documented, going back to the middle of the 19th century. There was no officially recognised system until the adoption of the "OLO" (Template:Lang) on 5 June 1946.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> This orthography provided a system for speakers of all varieties of Luxembourgish to transcribe words the way they pronounced them, rather than imposing a single, standard spelling for the words of the language. The rules explicitly rejected certain elements of German orthography (Template:Abbr, the use of Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr,<ref>"Et get kèèn ä geshriven. [...] Et get kèèn ö geshriven." (p. 639)</ref> the capitalisation of nouns). Similarly, new principles were adopted for the spelling of French loanwords.
- Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang (cf. German Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang)
- Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang (cf. French Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang)
This proposed orthography, so different from existing "foreign" standards that people were already familiar with, did not enjoy widespread approval.
A more successful standard eventually emerged from the work of the committee of specialists charged with the task of creating the Luxemburger Wörterbuch, published in 5 volumes between 1950 and 1977. The orthographic conventions adopted in this decades-long project, set out in Bruch (1955), provided the basis of the standard orthography that became official on 10 October 1975.<ref>Mémorial B no. 68 (16 November 1976), pp. 1365–90: "Arrêté ministériel du 10 octobre 1975 portant réforme du système officiel d'orthographe luxembourgeoise". https://www.cpll.lu/pdf/ortho_1975.pdf</ref> Modifications to this standard were proposed by the Permanent Council of the Luxembourguish language and adopted officially in the spelling reform of 30 July 1999.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A detailed explanation of current practice for Luxembourgish can be found in Schanen & Lulling (2003).
Alphabet
[edit]Template:See also The Luxembourgish alphabet consists of the 26 Latin letters plus three letters with diacritics: Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, and Template:Angbr. In loanwords from French and Standard German, other diacritics are usually preserved:
- French: Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, etc.
- German: Template:Lang, Template:Lang (from German Template:Lang), etc.
In German loanwords, the digraphs Template:Angbr IPA and Template:Angbr IPA indicate the diphthong Template:IPA, which does not appear in native words.
Orthography of vowels
[edit]Template:Col-begin Template:Col-break
Diphthongs Spelling IPA Example ai Template:IPA Template:Lang ei Template:Lang äi Template:IPA Template:Lang auTemplate:Efn Template:IPA Template:Lang Template:IPA Template:Lang éi Template:IPA Template:Lang Template:Not a typo Template:IPA Template:Lang ier Template:Lang ou Template:IPA Template:Lang ue Template:IPA Template:Lang uer Template:Lang
r-vocalization Spelling IPA Example ar Template:IPA Template:Lang aar Template:Lang är Template:IPA Template:Lang äer Template:Lang er Template:IPA Template:Lang ir Template:IPA Template:Lang ier Template:Lang or Template:IPA Template:Lang oer Template:Lang ur Template:IPA Template:Lang uer Template:Lang
Eifeler Regel
[edit]Like many other varieties of Western High German, Luxembourgish has a rule of final n-deletion in certain contexts. The effects of this rule (known as the "Eifel Rule") are indicated in writing, and therefore must be taken into account when spelling words and morphemes ending in Template:Angbr or Template:Angbr. For example:
- Template:Lang "when I go", but Template:Lang "when we go"
- Template:Lang "thirty-five", but Template:Lang "forty-five".
Sample
[edit]Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Phonology
[edit]Consonants
[edit]The consonant inventory of Luxembourgish is quite similar to that of Standard German.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA occurs only in loanwords from Standard German.Template:Sfnp Just as for many native speakers of Standard German, it tends to be simplified to Template:IPA word-initially. For example, Pflicht ('obligation') is realised as Template:IPA or, in careful speech, Template:IPA.
- Template:IPA is realised as Template:IPAblink when it occurs after Template:IPA, e.g. zwee Template:IPA ('two').Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA appears only in a few words, such as spadséieren Template:IPA ('to go for a walk').Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA occurs only in loanwords from English.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA have two types of allophones: alveolo-palatal Template:IPA and uvular Template:IPA. The latter occur before back vowels, and the former occur in all other positions.Template:Sfnp
- The Template:IPAblink allophone appears only in a few words, and speakers increasingly fail to distinguish between the alveolo-palatal allophones of Template:IPA and the postalveolar phonemes Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
- Younger speakers tend to vocalize a word-final Template:IPA to Template:IPAblink.Template:Sfnp
Vowels
[edit]- The front rounded vowels Template:IPA appear only in loanwords from French and Standard German. In loanwords from French, nasal Template:IPA also occur.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA has two allophones:
- Before velars: close-mid front unrounded Template:IPAblink,Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp which, for some speakers, may be open-mid Template:IPAblink, especially before Template:IPA. The same variation in height applies to Template:IPA, which may be as open as Template:IPAblink.Template:Sfnp
- All other positions: mid central vowel, more often slightly rounded Template:IPAblink than unrounded Template:IPAblink.Template:Sfnp
- Phonetically, the long mid vowels Template:IPA are raised close-mid (near-close) Template:IPA and may even overlap with Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA before Template:IPA is realised as Template:IPAblink.Template:Sfnp
- Template:IPA is the long variant of Template:IPA, not Template:IPA, which does not have a long counterpart.
| Ending point | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Close | Template:IPA | ||
| Mid | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | |
| Open | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | |
- Template:IPA appears only in loanwords from Standard German.Template:Sfnp
- The first elements of Template:IPA may be phonetically short Template:IPA in fast speech or in unstressed syllables.Template:Sfnp
- The Template:IPA and Template:IPA contrasts arose from the former lexical tone contrast; the shorter Template:IPA were used in words with Accent 1, and the lengthened Template:IPA were used in words with Accent 2.Template:Sfnp
Grammar
[edit]Template:More citations needed section
Nominal syntax
[edit]Luxembourgish has three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and three cases (nominative, accusative, and dative). These are marked morphologically on determiners and pronouns. As in German, there is no morphological gender distinction in the plural.
The forms of the articles and of some selected determiners are given below:
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As seen above, Luxembourgish has plural forms of Template:Lang ("a, an"), namely Template:Lang in the nominative/accusative and Template:Lang in the dative. They are not used as indefinite articles, which—as in German and English—do not exist in the plural, but they do occur in the compound pronouns Template:Lang ("what, which") and Template:Lang ("such"). For example: Template:Lang ("what things"); Template:Lang ("such things"). Moreover, they are used before numbers to express an estimation: Template:Lang ("some 30,000 spectators").
Distinct nominative forms survive in a few nominal phrases such as Template:Lang ("the devil") and Template:Lang ("our Lord"). Rare examples of the genitive are also found: Template:Lang ("end of the month"), Template:Lang ("at the beginning of the week"). The functions of the genitive are normally expressed using a combination of the dative and a possessive determiner: e.g. Template:Lang (lit. "to the man his book", i.e. "the man's book"). This is known as a periphrastic genitive, and is a phenomenon also commonly seen in dialectal and colloquial German, and in Dutch.
The forms of the personal pronouns are given in the following table (unstressed forms appear in parentheses):
| nominative | accusative | dative | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) |
| 2sg | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) | Template:Lang | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) |
| 3sgm | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) | |
| 3sgn | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) | ||
| 3sgf | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) | |
| 1pl | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) | Template:Lang / Template:Lang | |
| 2pl | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) | Template:Lang | |
| 3pl | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) | Template:Lang (Template:Lang) | |
The 2pl form is also used as a polite singular (like French Template:Lang, see T-V distinction); the forms are capitalised in writing:
- Template:Lang ("How did you [informal sg.] like the concert?")
- Template:Lang ("How did you [informal pl.] like the concert?")
- Template:Lang ("How did you [formal sg. or pl.] like the concert?")
Like most varieties of colloquial German, but even more invariably, Luxembourgish uses definite articles with personal names. They are obligatory and not to be translated:
- Template:Lang ("Serge is in the kitchen.")
A feature Luxembourgish shares with only some western dialects of German is that women and girls are most often referred to with forms of the neuter pronoun Template:Lang:
- Template:Lang ("That's Nathalie. She is tired because she has worked a lot in her garden.")
Adjectives
[edit]Adjectives show a different morphological behaviour when used attributively and predicatively. In predicative use, e.g. when they occur with verbs like sinn ("to be"), adjectives receive no extra ending:
- De Mann ass grouss. (masculine, "The man is tall.")
- D'Fra ass grouss. (feminine, "The woman is tall.")
- D'Meedchen ass grouss. (neuter, "The girl is tall.")
- D'Kanner si grouss. (plural, "The children are tall.")
In attributive use, i.e. when placed before the noun they describe, they change their ending according to the grammatical gender, number and case of the noun:
- de grousse Mann (masculine)
- déi grouss Fra (feminine)
- dat grousst Meedchen (neuter)
- déi grouss Kanner (plural)
The definite article changes with the use of an attributive adjective: feminine d' goes to déi (or di), neuter d' goes to dat, and plural d' changes to déi.
The comparative in Luxembourgish is formed analytically, i.e. the adjective itself is not altered (compare the use of -er in German and English; tall → taller, klein → kleiner). Instead it is formed using the adverb méi: e.g. schéin → méi schéin
- Lëtzebuerg ass méi schéi wéi Esch. ("Luxembourg is prettier than Esch.")
The superlative involves a synthetic form consisting of the adjective and the suffix -st: e.g. schéin → schéinst (compare German schönst, English prettiest). Attributive modification requires the emphatic definite article and the inflected superlative adjective:
- dee schéinste Mann ("the most handsome man")
- déi schéinst Fra ("the prettiest woman")
Predicative modification uses either the same adjectival structure or the adverbial structure am+ -sten: e.g. schéin → am schéinsten:
- Lëtzebuerg ass dee schéinsten / deen allerschéinsten / am schéinsten. ("Luxembourg is the most beautiful (of all).")
Some common adjectives have exceptional comparative and superlative forms:
- gutt, besser, am beschten ("good, better, best")
- vill, méi, am meeschten ("much, more, most")
- wéineg, manner, am mannsten ("few, fewer, fewest")
Several other adjectives also have comparative forms, not commonly used as normal comparatives, but in special senses:
- al ("old") → eeler Leit ("elderly people"), but: méi al Leit ("older people, people older than X")
- fréi ("early") → de fréiere President ("the former president"), but: e méi fréien Termin ("an earlier appointment")
- laang ("long") → viru längerer Zäit ("some time ago"), but: eng méi laang Zäit ("a longer period of time")
Word order
[edit]Luxembourgish exhibits "verb second" word order in clauses. More specifically, Luxembourgish is a V2-SOV language, like German and Dutch. In other words, we find the following finite clausal structures:
- the finite verb in second position in declarative clauses and wh-questions
- Ech kafen en Hutt. Muer kafen ech en Hutt. (lit. "I buy a hat. Tomorrow buy I a hat.)
- Wat kafen ech haut? (lit. "What buy I today?")
- the finite verb in first position in yes/no questions and finite imperatives
- Bass de midd? ("Are you tired?")
- Gëff mer deng Hand! ("Give me your hand!")
- the finite verb in final position in subordinate clauses
- Du weess, datt ech midd sinn. (lit. "You know, that I tired am.")
Non-finite verbs (infinitives and participles) generally appear in final position:
- compound past tenses
- Ech hunn en Hutt kaf. (lit. "I have a hat bought.")
- infinitival complements
- Du solls net esou vill Kaffi drénken. (lit. "You should not so much coffee drink.")
- infinitival clauses (e.g., used as imperatives)
- Nëmme Lëtzebuergesch schwätzen! (lit. "Only Luxembourgish speak!")
These rules interact so that in subordinate clauses, the finite verb and any non-finite verbs must all cluster at the end. Luxembourgish allows different word orders in these cases:
- Hie freet, ob ech komme kann. (cf. German Er fragt, ob ich kommen kann.) (lit. "He asks if I come can.")
- Hie freet, ob ech ka kommen. (cf. Dutch Hij vraagt of ik kan komen.) (lit. "He asks if I can come.")
This is also the case when two non-finite verb forms occur together:
- Ech hunn net kënne kommen. (cf. Dutch Ik heb niet kunnen komen.) (lit, "I have not be-able to-come")
- Ech hunn net komme kënnen. (cf. German Ich habe nicht kommen können.) (lit, "I have not to-come be-able")
Luxembourgish (like Dutch and German) allows prepositional phrases to appear after the verb cluster in subordinate clauses:
- alles, wat Der ëmmer wollt wëssen iwwer Lëtzebuerg
- (lit. "everything what you always wanted know about Luxembourg")
Vocabulary
[edit]Template:More citations needed section
Luxembourgish has borrowed many French words. For example, the word for a bus driver is Buschauffeur (as in Dutch and Swiss German), which would be Busfahrer in German and chauffeur de bus in French.
Some words are different from Standard German, but have equivalents in German dialects. An example is Gromperen (potatoes – German: Kartoffeln). Other words are exclusive to Luxembourgish.
Selected common phrases
[edit]
Template:Audio Note: Words spoken in sound clip do not reflect all words on this list.
| Dutch | Luxembourgish | Standard German | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ja. | Jo. | Ja. | Yes. |
| Nee(n). | Nee(n). | Nein. | No. |
| Misschien, wellicht | Vläicht. | Vielleicht. | Maybe. |
| Hallo. (also moi in the north and east) | Moien. | Hallo. (also Moin in the north) | Hello. |
| Goedemorgen. | Gudde Moien. | Guten Morgen. | Good morning. |
| Goedendag. or Goedemiddag. | Gudde Mëtteg. | Guten Tag. | Good afternoon. |
| Goedenavond. | Gudden Owend. | Guten Abend. | Good evening. |
| Tot ziens. | Äddi. | Auf Wiedersehen. | Goodbye. |
| Dank u or Merci. (Belgium) | Merci. | Danke. | Thank you. |
| Waarom? or Waarvoor? | Firwat? | Warum? or Wofür? | Why, What for |
| Ik weet het niet. | Ech weess net. | Ich weiß nicht. | I don't know. |
| Ik versta het niet. | Ech verstinn net. | Ich verstehe nicht. | I don't understand. |
| Excuseer mij or Wablief? (Belgium) | Watgelift? or Entschëllegt? | Entschuldigung? | Excuse me? |
| Slagerszoon. | Metzleschjong. | Metzgersohn. / Metzgerjunge. | Butcher's son. |
| Spreek je Duits/Frans/Engels? | Schwätzt dir Däitsch/Franséisch/Englesch? | Sprichst du Deutsch/Französisch/Englisch? | Do you speak German/French/English? |
| Hoe heet je? | Wéi heeschs du? | Wie heißt du? | What is your name? |
| Hoe gaat het? | Wéi geet et? | Wie geht's? | How are you?, How is it going? |
| Politiek Fatsoen. | Politeschen Anstand. | Politischer Anstand. | Political decency |
| Zo. | Sou. | So. | So. |
| Vrij. | Fräi. | Frei. | Free. |
| Thuis. | Heem. | zu Hause. / Heim. | Home. |
| Ik. | Ech. | Ich. | I. |
| En. | An. | Und. | And. |
| Mijn. | Mäin. | Mein. | My. |
| Ezel. | Iesel. | Esel. | donkey, ass. |
| Met. | Mat. | Mit. | With. |
| Kind. | Kand. | Kind. | Child, kid |
| Weg. | Wee. | Weg. | Way. |
| Aardappel. | Gromper. | Kartoffel/Erdapfel. | Potato. |
| Brood. | Brout. | Brot. | Bread. |
Neologisms
[edit]Neologisms in Luxembourgish include both entirely new words, and the attachment of new meanings to old words in everyday speech. The most recent neologisms come from the English language in the fields of telecommunications, computer science, and the Internet.
Recent neologisms in Luxembourgish include:<ref>Lulling, Jérôme. (2002) La créativité lexicale en luxembourgeois, Doctoral thesis, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier III</ref>
- direct loans from English: Browser, Spam, CD, Fitness, Come-back, Terminal, Hip, Cool, Tip-top
- also found in German: Sichmaschinn (search engine, German: Suchmaschine), schwaarzt Lach (black hole, German: Schwarzes Loch), Handy (mobile phone), Websäit (webpage, German: Webseite)
- native Luxembourgish
- déck as an emphatic like ganz and voll, e.g. Dëse Kuch ass déck gutt! ("This cake is really good!")
- recent expressions, used mainly by teenagers: oh mëllen! ("oh crazy"), en décke gelénkt ("you've been tricked") or cassé (French for "(you've been) owned")
Academic projects
[edit]Between 2000 and 2002, Luxembourgish linguist Jérôme Lulling compiled a lexical database of 125,000-word forms as the basis for the first Luxembourgish spellchecker (Projet C.ORT.IN.A).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The LaF (Lëtzebuergesch als Friemsprooch – Luxembourgish as a Foreign Language) is a set of four language proficiency certifications for Luxembourgish and follows the ALTE framework of language examination standards. The tests are administered by the Institut National des Langues Luxembourg.<ref name="laf_insl">Template:Cite web</ref>
The "Centre for Luxembourg Studies" at the University of Sheffield was founded in 1995 on the initiative of Professor Gerald Newton. It is supported by the government of Luxembourg which funds an endowed chair in Luxembourg Studies at the university.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The first class of students to study the language outside of the country as undergraduate students began their studies at the 'Centre for Luxembourg Studies' at Sheffield in the academic year 2011–2012.
Endangered status claims
[edit]UNESCO declared Luxembourgish to be an endangered language in 2019, adding it to its Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Additionally, some local mediaTemplate:Citation needed have argued that the Luxembourgish language is at risk of disappearing, and that it should be considered an endangered language.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Even though the government claims that more people than ever are able to speak Luxembourgish, these are absolute numbers and often include the many naturalized citizens who have passed the Sproochentest, a language test that certifies the knowledge of merely A.2. in speaking and B.1. in understanding.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Luxembourgish language expert and historian Alain Atten argues that not only the absolute number of Luxembourgish speakers should be considered when defining the status of a language, but also the proportion of speakers in a country. Noting that the proportion of native Luxembourgish speakers has decreased in recent decades, Atten believes that Luxembourgish will inevitably disappear, stating:
It is simple math, if there are about 70% foreigners and about 30% Luxembourgers (which is the case in Luxembourg City), then it cannot possibly be said that Luxembourgish is thriving. That would be very improbable.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref>
Alain Atten also argues that the situation is even more dramatic, since the cited percentages take only the residents of Luxembourg into account, excluding the 200,000 cross-border-workers present in the country on a daily basis.<ref name=":1" /> This group plays a major role in the daily use of languages in Luxembourg, thus further lowering the percentage of Luxembourgish speakers present in the country.
The following numbers are based on statistics by STATEC (those since 2011) and show that the percentage of the population that is able to speak Luxembourgish has been constantly diminishing for years (The 200,000 cross-border workers are not included in this statistic):<ref name=":1" />
| Year | Percentage |
|---|---|
| 1846 | 99.0% Template:Citation needed |
| 1900 | 88.0% |
| 1983 | 80.6% |
| 2011 | 70.51% |
| 2012 | 70.07% |
| 2013 | 69.65% |
| 2014 | 69.17% |
| 2015 | 68.78% |
| 2016 | 68.35% |
| 2017 | 67.77% |
It has also been arguedTemplate:Citation needed that two very similar languages, Alsatian and Lorraine Franconian, which were very broadly spoken by the local populations at the beginning of the 20th century in Alsace and in Lorraine respectively, have been nearly completely supplanted by French, and that a similar fate could also be possible for Luxembourgish.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Another example of the replacement of Luxembourgish by French occurred in Arelerland (historically a part of Luxembourg, today in Belgium), where the vast majority of the local population spoke Luxembourgish as a native language well into the 20th century. Today, Luxembourgish is nearly extinct in this region, having been replaced by French.
According to some Luxembourgish news mediaTemplate:Citation needed and members of Actioun Lëtzebuergesch (an association for the preservation and promotion of the language), the biggest threat to the existence of Luxembourgish is indeed French, since it is the language of most official documents and street signs in Luxembourg; this considerably weakens the possibility for Luxembourgish to be practiced by new speakers and learners.<ref name=":2" /> In most cases, this passively forces expats to learn French instead of Luxembourgish.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite web</ref>
In 2021 it was announced that public announcements in Luxembourgish (and in German as well) at Luxembourg Airport would cease; it would only be using French and English for future public announcements.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> This will cause Luxembourgish to go unused at Luxembourg Airport after many decades. Actioun Lëtzebuergesch declared itself to be hugely upset by this new governmental measure, citing that other airports in the world seem to have no problems making public announcements in multiple languages.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref> According to a poll conducted by AL, 92.84% of the Luxembourgish population wished to have public announcements to be made in Luxembourgish at Luxembourg Airport.<ref name=":0"/>
ADR politician Fred Keup has claimed that Luxembourgish is already on its way to complete replacement by French.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
See also
[edit]- Erna Hennicot-Schoepges
- Literature of Luxembourg
- Luxembourgish Swadesh List
- Multilingualism in Luxembourg
Notes and references
[edit]Notes
[edit]References
[edit]Bibliography
[edit]- Bruch, Robert. (1955) Précis de grammaire luxembourgeoise. Bulletin Linguistique et Ethnologique de l'Institut Grand-Ducal, Luxembourg, Linden. (2nd edition of 1968)
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- Schanen, François and Lulling, Jérôme. (2003) Introduction à l'orthographe luxembourgeoise. (text available in French and Luxembourgish)
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Further reading
[edit]In English
- NEWTON, Gerald (ed.), Luxembourg and Lëtzebuergesch: Language and Communication at the Crossroads of Europe, Oxford, 1996, Template:ISBN
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In French
- BRAUN, Josy, et al. (en coll. avec Projet Moien), Grammaire de la langue luxembourgeoise. Luxembourg, Ministère de l'Éducation nationale et de la Formation professionnelle 2005. Template:ISBN
- SCHANEN, François, Parlons Luxembourgeois, Langue et culture linguistique d'un petit pays au coeur de l'Europe. Paris, L'Harmattan 2004, Template:ISBN
- SCHANEN, François / ZIMMER, Jacqui, 1,2,3 Lëtzebuergesch Grammaire. Band 1: Le groupe verbal. Band 2: Le groupe nominal. Band 3:L'orthographe. Esch-sur-Alzette, éditions Schortgen, 2005 et 2006
- SCHANEN, François / ZIMMER, Jacqui, Lëtzebuergesch Grammaire luxembourgeoise. En un volume. Esch-sur-Alzette, éditions Schortgen, 2012. Template:ISBN
In Luxembourgish
- SCHANEN, François, Lëtzebuergesch Sproocherubriken. Esch-sur-Alzette, éditions Schortgen, 2013.Template:ISBN
- Meyer, Antoine, E' Schrek ob de' lezeburger Parnassus, Lezeburg (Luxembourg), Lamort, 1829
In German
- BRUCH, Robert, Grundlegung einer Geschichte des Luxemburgischen, Luxembourg, Publications scientifiques et littéraires du Ministère de l'Éducation nationale, 1953, vol. I; Das Luxemburgische im westfränkischen Kreis, Luxembourg, Publications scientifiques et littéraires du Ministère de l'Éducation nationale, 1954, vol. II
- MOULIN, Claudine and Nübling, Damaris (publisher): Perspektiven einer linguistischen Luxemburgistik. Studien zu Diachronie und Synchronie., Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg, 2006. This book has been published with the support of the Fonds National de la Recherche
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- BERG, Guy, Mir wëlle bleiwe wat mir sin: Soziolinguistische und sprachtypologische Betrachtungen zur luxemburgischen Mehrsprachigkeit., Tübingen, 1993 (Reihe Germanistische Linguistik 140). Template:ISBN
- (phrasebook) REMUS, Joscha, Lëtzebuergesch Wort für Wort. Kauderwelsch Band 104. Bielefeld, Reise Know-How Verlag 1997. Template:ISBN
- WELSCHBILLIG Myriam, SCHANEN François, Jérôme Lulling, Luxdico Deutsch: Luxemburgisch ↔ Deutsches Wörterbuch, Luxemburg (Éditions Schortgen) 2008, Luxdico Deutsch
External links
[edit]Template:InterWiki Template:Commons category
- Conseil Permanent de la Langue Luxembourgeoise Template:Webarchive
- LuxVocabulary: Web application for learning Luxembourgish vocabulary
- Spellcheckers and dictionaries
- Spellcheckers for Luxembourgish: Spellchecker.lu, Spellchecker.lu - Richteg Lëtzebuergesch schreiwen
- Luxdico online dictionary (24.000 words)
- Lëtzebuerger Online Dictionnaire (Luxembourgish Online Dictionary) with German, French and Portuguese translations created by the CPLL
- dico.lu – Dictionnaire Luxembourgeois//Français Template:Webarchive
- Luxembourgish Dictionary with pronunciation, translation to and from English, French, German, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian
- Luxogramm – Information system for the Luxembourgish grammar (University of Luxembourg, LU)
Template:Luxembourg topics Template:Languages of the Benelux Template:Germanic languages