Angela Merkel

Angela Dorothea Merkel (Template:IPA;Template:Efn Template:Née; born 17 July 1954) is a German retired politician who served as Chancellor of Germany from 2005 to 2021. She is the only woman to have held the office. She was Leader of the Opposition from 2002 to 2005 and Leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) from 2000 to 2018.<ref>Government continues as acting government Template:Webarchive, bundeskanzlerin.de, 24 October 2017</ref>

Merkel was born in Hamburg in West Germany. Her family moved to East Germany when she was an infant. Merkel obtained a doctorate in quantum chemistry in 1986 and worked as a research scientist until 1989.<ref name="covid19-atlantic">Template:Cite web</ref> She then entered politics in the wake of the Revolutions of 1989, briefly serving as deputy spokeswoman for the first democratically elected government of East Germany, led by Lothar de Maizière. Following German reunification in 1990, Merkel was elected to the Bundestag for the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. As the protégée of Chancellor Helmut Kohl, Merkel was appointed as Minister for Women and Youth in 1991, later becoming Minister for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety in 1994. After the CDU lost the 1998 federal election, Merkel was elected general secretary of the party. She then became the party's first female leader, and the first female leader of the Opposition, two years later.

Following the 2005 federal election, Merkel was elected chancellor, leading a grand coalition consisting of the CDU, the Christian Social Union (CSU), and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). She was the first woman to be elected chancellor, and the first chancellor of reunified Germany to have been raised in the former East Germany.Template:Efn In the 2009 federal election, the CDU obtained the largest share of the vote, and Merkel subsequently formed a coalition government with the Free Democratic Party (FDP), an alliance more favourable to the CDU than the grand coalition.<ref name="BBCnewterm2">Template:Cite news</ref> In the 2013 federal election, the CDU won a landslide victory and formed a second grand coalition with the SPD, after the FDP lost all of its representation in the Bundestag.<ref name="cwn">Template:Cite web</ref> In the 2017 federal election, Merkel led the CDU to become the largest party for the fourth time, resulting in the formation of a third grand coalition with the SPD.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In foreign policy, Merkel emphasised international cooperation, both in the context of the EU and NATO, and initiating the Russian reset and strengthening of Eurasian and transatlantic economic relations. In the first half of 2007, Merkel served as president of the European Council and played a central role in the negotiation of the Treaty of Lisbon and the Berlin Declaration. Merkel's governments managed the global 2008 financial crisis and the European debt crisis. She negotiated the 2008 European Union stimulus plan, which focused on infrastructure spending and public investment to counteract the Great Recession. Also in 2008, she actively blocked the access of Ukraine and Georgia to NATO membership during the organization's Bucharest summit.<ref>No fast-track NATO membership for Georgia: Merkel, France 24, 24 August 2018</ref><ref>Angela Merkel defends ties with Russia and blocking Ukraine from Nato, BBC News, 25 November 2024</ref>

In domestic policy, Merkel's Energiewende programme supported the development of renewable energy, Russian gas and the phaseout of nuclear power in Germany. Despite the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea, which prompted sanctions around the world, she initiated the construction of the controversial Nord Stream 2 pipelines to Russia and protected their construction from United States sanctions imposed in 2019. Reforms to the Template:Lang, health care reform, the 2010s European migrant crisis, and the COVID-19 pandemic were major issues during her chancellorship. Merkel stepped down as leader of the CDU in 2018 and did not seek a fifth term as chancellor in the 2021 federal election. Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, her legacy came under increased scrutiny both in Germany and abroad for her relatively warm relations with Russia and increasing the German economy's dependence on Russia, as well as the downsizing of the Bundeswehr that occurred during her tenure.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Background and early life

File:Ludwik Marian Kaźmierczak in the uniform of Haller's Army with fiancée Margarethe.jpg

Merkel's paternal grandparents when engaged: Margarethe and her betrothed, Ludwik Marian Kaźmierczak, in his Polish Blue Army uniform

Merkel was born Angela Dorothea Kasner in 1954, in Hamburg, West Germany, the daughter of Horst Kasner (1926–2011; né Template:Lang),<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> a Lutheran pastor and a native of Berlin, and his wife Herlind (1928–2019; née Jentzsch), born in Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland), a teacher of English and Latin. She has two younger siblings, Marcus Kasner, a physicist, and Irene Kasner, an occupational therapist. In her childhood and youth, Merkel was known among her peers by the nickname "Kasi", derived from her last name Kasner.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Page needed<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Merkel is of German and Polish descent. Her paternal grandfather, Ludwik Kasner, was a German policeman of Polish ethnicity. After being captured in France during World War I, he joined the Blue Army and likely fought against Germany.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> He married Merkel's grandmother Margarethe, a German from Berlin, and relocated to her hometown where he again worked in the police. In 1930, they Germanised the Polish name Kaźmierczak to Kasner.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Kornelius-2013">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Merkel's maternal grandparents were the Danzig politician Willi Jentzsch and Gertrud Alma (née Drange), a daughter of the city clerk of Elbing (now Elbląg, Poland) Emil Drange. Since the mid-1990s, Merkel has publicly mentioned her Polish heritage on several occasions and described herself as a quarter Polish, but her Polish roots became better known as a result of a 2013 biography.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Religion played a key role in the Kasner family's migration from West Germany to East Germany.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Merkel's paternal grandfather was originally Catholic but the entire family converted to Lutheranism during the childhood of her father,<ref name="Kornelius-2013"/> who later studied Lutheran theology in Heidelberg and Hamburg. In 1954, when Angela was just three months old, her father received a pastorate at the church in Template:Interlanguage link (a district of Perleberg in Brandenburg), which was then in East Germany.<ref name="Werner-2005" /> The family moved to Templin and Merkel grew up in the countryside Template:Convert north of East Berlin.<ref name="Werner-2005">Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 1968, Merkel joined the Free German Youth (FDJ), the official communist youth movement sponsored by the ruling Marxist–Leninist Socialist Unity Party of Germany.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Membership was nominally voluntary, but those who did not join found it difficult to gain admission to higher education.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> She did not participate in the secular coming-of-age ceremony Jugendweihe, however, which was common in East Germany. Instead, she was confirmed.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> During this time, she participated in several compulsory courses on Marxism–Leninism, with her grades only being regarded as "sufficient".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Merkel later said that "Life in the GDR was sometimes almost comfortable in a certain way, because there were some things one simply couldn't influence."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Merkel learned to speak Russian fluently at school, and she was awarded prizes for her proficiency in Russian and mathematics, being at the top of her class in these subjects. She completed her school education with the best possible average Abitur grade of 1.0.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Academic career

Merkel continued her education at Karl Marx University, Leipzig, where she studied physics from 1973 to 1978.<ref name="Werner-2005" /> While a student, she participated in the reconstruction of the ruin of the Moritzbastei, a project students initiated to create their own club and recreation facility on campus. Such an initiative was unprecedented in the GDR of that period, and initially resisted by the university. With the backing of the local leadership of the SED party, the project was allowed to proceed.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Near the end of her studies, Merkel sought an assistant professorship at an engineering school. As a condition for getting the job, Merkel was told she would need to agree to report on her colleagues to officers of the Stasi. Merkel declined, using the excuse that she could not keep secrets well enough to be an effective spy.<ref name="Crawford, Alan Czuczka, Tony" />

Merkel worked and studied at the Central Institute for Physical Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin-Adlershof from 1978 to 1990. At first, she and her husband squatted in Mitte.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> At the Academy of Sciences, she became a member of its FDJ secretariat. According to her former colleagues, she openly propagated Marxism as the secretary for "Agitation and Propaganda".<ref name="Spiegel1">Template:Cite magazine</ref> However, Merkel has denied this claim and stated that she was secretary for culture, which involved activities like obtaining theatre tickets and organising talks by visiting Soviet authors.<ref name="Langguth106">Template:Cite book</ref> She stated: "I can only rely on my memory, if something turns out to be different, I can live with that."<ref name="Spiegel1" />

After being awarded a doctorate (Dr. rer. nat.) for her thesis on quantum chemistry in 1986,<ref>Template:Cite book cited in Template:Cite book and listed in the Catalogue of the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek under subject code 30 (Chemistry).</ref> she worked as a researcher and published several academic papers.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 1986, she was allowed to travel to West Germany to attend a congress. She also participated in a multi-week Russian languageTemplate:Which course in Donetsk, in the then-Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Early political career

1989–1990: German reunification

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1990-0803-017, Lothar de Maiziere und Angela Merkel.jpg

Lothar de Maizière and Merkel, 1990

The fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 served as the catalyst for Merkel's political career.<ref name="Huggler-2015" /> Although she did not participate in the crowd celebrations the night the wall came down, one month later Merkel became involved in the growing democracy movement, joining the new party Democratic Awakening (Template:Lang, abbreviated to DA).<ref name="Huggler-2015" /> Party Leader Wolfgang Schnur appointed her as press spokeswoman of the party in February 1990. However, Schnur was revealed to have served as an "informal co-worker" for the Stasi just a few weeks ahead of the first (and only) multi-party election in 1990 and was later expelled from the party. As a result, the DA lost most of its electoral support, only managing to obtain four seats in the Volkskammer. However, because the DA was a member party of the Alliance for Germany, which won the election in a landslide, the DA was included in the government coalition. Merkel was appointed deputy spokesperson of this last pre-unification government under Lothar de Maizière.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

De Maizière was impressed with the way Merkel handled journalists investigating Schnur's role in the Stasi.<ref name="Crawford, Alan Czuczka, Tony">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Huggler-2015">Template:Cite news</ref> In April 1990, the DA merged with the East German Christian Democratic Union, which in turn merged with its western counterpart after reunification.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

1990–1994: Minister for Women and Youth

Elections

In the German federal election of 1990, the first to be held following reunification, Merkel successfully stood for election to the Bundestag in the parliamentary constituency of Stralsund – Nordvorpommern – Rügen in North Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> She received the crucial backing of influential CDU minister and state party chairman Günther Krause. She was re-elected from this constituency (renamed, with slightly adjusted borders, Vorpommern-Rügen – Vorpommern-Greifswald I in 2003) in every election until the CDU lost its direct mandate from the constituency in the 2021 federal election.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Almost immediately following her entry into parliament, Merkel was appointed by Chancellor Helmut Kohl to serve as Minister for Women and Youth in the federal cabinet.

In November 1991, Merkel, with the support of the federal CDU, ran for the state leadership of the CDU in the state of Brandenburg, which neighbours Berlin. She lost to Ulf Fink.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In June 1993, Merkel was elected leader of the CDU in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, succeeding her former mentor Günther Krause.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Policy

Although Merkel had little interest in the political position as such, it has been described as instrumental in building her early political image.<ref name="Vick-2015">Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="Packer-2014">Template:Cite magazine</ref> During her tenure, the government codified the right to preschool education, although the law only went into effect in 1996.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In June 1992, § 218 of the StGB, which governed abortion rights, was rewritten to allow abortions until the 12th week of pregnancy.<ref name="Bildung-2023">Template:Cite web</ref> Though she was personally opposed to abortion at the time, Merkel abstained during the vote on the bill.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The law was later overturned by the Federal Constitutional Court on the basis that there must be a general prohibition of abortion.<ref name="Bildung-2023" /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

1994–1998: Minister for the Environment

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Merkel in a CDU campaign poster, 1995

In 1994, she was promoted to the position of Minister for the Environment and Nuclear Safety, which gave her greater political visibility and a platform on which to build her personal political career. As one of Kohl's protégées and his youngest Cabinet Minister, she was frequently referred to by Kohl as "my girl" (Template:Lang).<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> During this period, she was closely mentored by Kohl.<ref name="Packer-2014" />

As Minister of the Environment, Merkel was instrumental in setting up the United Nations 1995 Berlin Climate Change Conference. She is often credited as having brought about its most notable result, the first international commitment to a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Vick-2015" /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Around this time, she also first hired Beate Baumann, who would remain a close advisor to Merkel.<ref name="Packer-2014" /> Merkel's performance as Minister of the Environment was criticised as "pitiful" by Gerhard Schröder.<ref name="Vick-2015" />

1998–2000: General Secretary of the CDU

File:KAS-Sympathiewerbung-Bild-12009-1.jpg

1998 CDU campaign poster depicting Merkel between Wolfgang Schäuble and Matthias Wissmann

After the Kohl Government was defeated at the 1998 election, Merkel was appointed Secretary-General of the CDU.<ref name="Packer-2014" /> The 1998 election had widespread impacts; it was the CDU's worst performance in a federal election since 1949, and it resulted in Germany's first post-war left-wing government,Template:Efn led by the SPD.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In the wake of this defeat on the federal level, Merkel oversaw a string of CDU election victories in six out of seven state elections in 1999, breaking the long-standing SPD-Green hold on the Bundesrat. Following a party funding scandal that compromised many leading figures of the CDUTemplate:Sndincluding Kohl himself and his successor as CDU Leader, Wolfgang SchäubleTemplate:SndMerkel criticised her former mentor publicly and advocated a fresh start for the party without him.<ref name="Packer-2014" />

Early 2000s

Chairperson of the CDU

On 10 April 2000, Merkel was elected to replace Schäuble as Chairperson of the CDU, becoming the first female leader of a German party.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Her election surprised many observers, as her personality offered a contrast to the party she had been elected to lead; Merkel is a centrist Protestant originating from predominantly Protestant northern Germany, while the CDU is a male-dominated, socially conservative party with strongholds in western and southern Germany, and its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, has deep Catholic roots.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

File:Angela Merkel and Vladimir Putin in Moscow 2002.jpg

Merkel and Russian president Vladimir Putin in Moscow, 8 February 2002

Following Merkel's election as CDU Leader, the CDU did not obtain electoral victories in subsequent state elections. In February 2001, her rival Friedrich Merz voiced his intention to become Gerhard Schröder's main challenger for Chancellorship in the 2002 election. Merkel's ambition to become Chancellor was well-known, but she lacked the support of the most influential members within her own party. Rival candidate and leader of the CSU Edmund Stoiber was much more popular within the party at the time. In a private negotiation that came to be known as the Template:Ill Merkel agreed to cede the opportunity to challenge Schröder to Stoiber; in exchange, she was to become leader of the CDU/CSU faction in the Bundestag following the election.<ref>Barry Turner (ed.) The Statesman's Yearbook 2015: The Politics, Cultures and Economies of the World, Springer 2014 p. 516</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Although pre-election polling had indicated that voters strongly favoured Stoiber, he went on to lose the election by a thin margin. The election campaign was dominated by the Iraq War. While Chancellor Schröder had made clear he would not join the war in Iraq,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Merkel was in support of the war at the time, although she later claimed that she had opposed it.<ref name="dw.com-2016">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

2002–2005: Leader of the Opposition

After Stoiber's defeat in 2002, in addition to her role as CDU Leader, Merkel became Leader of the Opposition in the Bundestag, as had been agreed upon between her and Stoiber. Friedrich Merz, who had held the post prior to the 2002 election, was eased out to make way for Merkel.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Merkel supported a substantial reform agenda for Germany's economic and social system and was considered more pro-market than her own party (the CDU). She advocated German labour law changes, specifically removing barriers to laying off employees and increasing the allowed number of work hours in a week. She argued that existing laws made the country less competitive, because companies could not easily control labour costs when business was slow.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Merkel argued that Germany should phase out nuclear power less quickly than the Schröder administration had planned.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Merkel advocated a strong transatlantic partnership and German-American friendship. In the spring of 2003, defying strong public opposition, Merkel came out in favour of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, describing it as "unavoidable".<ref name="dw.com-2016" /> She also criticised the government's support for the accession of Turkey to the European Union, instead arguing in favour of a "privileged partnership".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

2005–2021: Chancellor of Germany

2005–2009: First CDU–SPD grand coalition

Election

On 30 May 2005, Merkel won the CDU/CSU nomination to challenge Chancellor Gerhard Schröder of the SPD in the 2005 federal elections. Her party began the campaign with a 21Template:Endashpoint lead over the SPD in national opinion polls, although her personal popularity lagged behind that of the incumbent. However, the CDU/CSU campaign suffered<ref name="Saunders-2005">Template:Cite news</ref> when Merkel, having made economic competence central to the CDU's platform, confused gross and net income twice during a televised debate.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> She regained some momentum after she announced that she would appoint Paul Kirchhof, a former judge at the German Constitutional Court and leading fiscal policy expert, as Minister of Finance.<ref name="Saunders-2005" />

Merkel and the CDU lost ground after Kirchhof proposed the introduction of a flat tax in Germany, again undermining the party's broad appeal on economic affairs.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> This was compounded by Merkel's proposal to increase VAT<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> to reduce Germany's deficit and fill the gap in revenue from a flat tax. The SPD were able to increase their support simply by pledging not to introduce flat taxes or increase VAT.<ref name="Saunders-2005" /> Although Merkel's standing recovered after she distanced herself from Kirchhof's proposals, she remained considerably less popular than Schröder, who had been perceived as the more generally competent and trustworthy candidate.<ref name="Hilmer-2006">Template:Cite journal</ref> The CDU's lead was down to 9 percentage points on the eve of the election, with Merkel having a significant lead in popularity based on opinion polls.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="BBC-2005">Template:Cite web</ref> On 18 September 2005, Merkel's CDU/CSU and Schröder's SPD went head-to-head in the national elections, with the CDU/CSU winning 35.2% (CDU 27.8% / CSU 7.5%)<ref name="Hilmer-2006" /> of the second votesTemplate:Efn to the SPD's 34.2%.<ref name="BBC-2005" /> The result was so close that both Schröder and Merkel initially claimed victory.<ref name="Packer-2014" /><ref name="BBC-2005" /> Neither the SPDTemplate:EndashGreen coalition nor the CDU/CSU and its preferred coalition partners, the Free Democratic Party, held enough seats to form a majority in the Bundestag.<ref name="BBC-2005" /> A grand coalition between the CDU/CSU and SPD would face the challenge of both parties demanding the chancellorship.<ref name="BBC-2005" /><ref name="BBC News-2005" /> However, after three weeks of negotiations, the two parties reached a deal for a grand coalition whereby Merkel would become Chancellor and the SPD would hold 8 of the 16 seats in the cabinet.<ref name="BBC News-2005">Template:Cite news</ref> The deal was approved by both parties at party conferences on 14 November 2005.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Merkel was elected Chancellor by the majority of delegates (397 to 217) in the newly assembled Bundestag on 22 November 2005, but 51 members of the governing coalition voted against her.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Reports at the time indicated that the grand coalition would pursue a mix of policies, some of which differed from Merkel's political platform as leader of the opposition and candidate for Chancellor. The coalition's intent was to cut public spending whilst increasing VAT (from 16 to 19%), social insurance contributions and the top rate of income tax.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

When announcing the coalition agreement, Merkel stated that the main aim of her government would be to reduce unemployment, and that it was this issue on which her government would be judged.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Healthcare reform

Reform of the German healthcare system was a salient issue during the 2005 election; the previous system had been criticised as inefficient and overly bureaucratic.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> After a significant period of negotiations, a deal was passed in 2006. While this agreement was described as having "saved the coalition government", it was also widely criticised as ineffectual. The deal also increased the tax burden on employers and their publicly insured employees.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The 2006 round of reforms introduced the "health insurance duty", which establishes that individuals must be insured either through the public insurance system or through private insurance firms and accordingly cannot be uninsured.<ref name="www.jstor.org">Template:Cite web</ref> The reforms also targeted preventive healthcare as a priority, particularly with regards to eldercare.<ref name="www.jstor.org" />

Eurozone crisis

Template:Main Template:See also On 4 October 2008, following the Irish Government's decision to guarantee all deposits in private savings accounts, a move she had strongly criticised,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Merkel said there were no plans for the German Government to do the same. The following day, Merkel stated that the government would guarantee private savings account deposits, after all.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> However, two days later, on 6 October 2008, it emerged that the pledge was simply a political move that would not be backed by legislation.<ref name="bbc">Template:Cite news</ref> Most other European governments eventually either raised the limits or promised to guarantee savings in full.<ref name="bbc" />

The German government stepped in to assist the mortgage company Hypo Real Estate with a bailout. The deal was agreed upon on 6 October, with German banks contributing €30 billion and the Bundesbank €20 billion to an emergency credit line.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

At the time of the Greek government-debt crisis, Germany was the largest creditor of the Greek government, giving it significant negotiating power.<ref name="Rankin-2021">Template:Cite news</ref> Merkel is often credited as having "saved the Euro", primarily due to her coordinating role in the development of debt relief policy.<ref name="Rankin-2021" /><ref name="Matthijs-2021" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The austerity measures imposed on debtors such as Greece, which were a significant part of Merkel's position in the negotiations, have been criticised as overly harsh by some observers.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Matthijs-2021" /> Critics also highlighted Germany's own debt management issues.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> A Bloomberg opinion piece noted that "irresponsible borrowers can't exist without irresponsible lenders"; accordingly, "Germany's banks were Greece's enablers."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

In the course of the 2008 financial crisis, the Merkel cabinet increased the budget of the Kurzarbeit programme significantly and extended the permitted duration of such contracts from 6 months to 18 months.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Although similar provisions had existed previously, the Merkel cabinet's expansion of the programme was widely praised and is credited with having saved 500,000 jobs during the 2008 financial crisis.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

2009–2013: CDU–FDP coalition

Merkel's CDU was re-elected in 2009 with an increased number of seats and could form a governing coalition with the FDP. After brief negotiations, the second Merkel cabinet was sworn in on 28 October 2009.<ref name="cabinet2009">Template:Cite news</ref> In early 2011, Merkel's approval ratings plummeted, resulting in heavy losses in state elections for her party.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> An August 2011 poll found her coalition had only 36% support compared to a rival potential coalition's 51%.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Notwithstanding the effects of the 2008 financial crisis, unemployment sank below 3 million unemployed people in 2011.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Abolition of conscription

Following increased debate on the subject in the summer of 2010,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> the German government announced plans to abolish conscription in Germany, making the Template:Lang a volunteer military, in November 2010.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The decision was finalised in December that year,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and conscription was suspended on 1 July 2011.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Although somewhat popular at the time, the decision has later come under scrutiny, particularly following to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It has also been criticised in conjunction with Germany's financial commitments to NATO.<ref name="The Washington Times">Template:Cite web</ref> In 2023, 61% of Germans said that they were in favour of reestablishing conscription.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Healthcare reform

Responding to a budget deficit of Template:Currency billion in the public healthcare system in 2009, the Merkel government passed widely unpopular healthcare reforms in 2010. The changes reduced healthcare spending in certain areas and increased employer and employee contributions to 15.5% of gross wages.<ref name="Reuters-2010">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The reforms also established that future contribution increases would only affect the contributions by employers, which was criticised by opposition parties and trade unions.<ref name="Reuters-2010" />

2013–2017: Second CDU–SPD grand coalition

File:Unterzeichnung des Koalitionsvertrages der 18. Wahlperiode des Bundestages (Martin Rulsch) 079.jpg

Merkel at the signing of the coalition agreement for the 18th election period of the Bundestag, December 2013

In the election of September 2013, Merkel won one of the most decisive victories in German history, achieving the best result for the CDU/CSU since reunification and coming within five seats of the first absolute majority in the Bundestag since 1957.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> However, their preferred coalition partner, the FDP, failed to enter parliament for the first time since 1949, being below the minimum of 5% of second votes required to enter parliament.<ref name="cwn" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The CDU/CSU turned to the SPD to form the third grand coalition in postwar German history and the second under Merkel's leadership. The third Cabinet of Angela Merkel was sworn in on 17 December 2013.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Merkel scored well in opinion polls on her handling of the recent euro crisis (69% rated her performance as good rather than poor), and her approval rating reached an all-time high of 77% in February 2012 and again in July 2014.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

2015 European migrant crisis

File:Pedro Sánchez y Angela Merkel 05.jpg

Spanish prime minister Pedro Sánchez and Merkel in Sanlúcar de Barrameda, 2018

Throughout the course of the European migrant crisis, Merkel encouraged cooperation between EU member states, urging that Europe needs to act "as a whole".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

In late August 2015, at the height of the crisis, Merkel's government suspended the Dublin Regulation, which stipulated that asylum seekers must seek asylum in the first EU country they arrive in. Merkel announced that Germany would also process asylum applications from Syrian refugees if they had come to Germany through other EU countries.<ref name="Holehouse-2015">Template:Cite news</ref> That year, nearly 1.1 million asylum seekers entered Germany.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Merkel coined the phrase Template:Lang (literally 'We can do this') around this time.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Junior coalition partner and Vice Chancellor Sigmar Gabriel said that Germany could take in 500,000 refugees annually for the next several years.<ref>"Migrant crisis: Germany 'can take 500,000 asylum seekers a year' Template:Webarchive". BBC News. 8 September 2015.</ref> German opposition to the government's admission of the new wave of migrants was strong and coupled with a rise in anti-immigration protests.<ref name="Hill">Template:Cite news</ref> Merkel insisted that Germany had the economic strength to cope with the influx of migrants and reiterated that there is no legal maximum limit on the number of migrants Germany can take.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In September 2015, enthusiastic crowds across the country welcomed arriving refugees and migrants.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Horst Seehofer, leader of the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU)Template:Em dashthe sister party of Merkel's Christian Democratic UnionTemplate:Em dashand then-Bavarian Minister President, attacked Merkel's policies.<ref name="MerkelSplits">Template:Cite news</ref> Seehofer criticised Merkel's decision to allow in migrants, saying that "[they were] in a state of mind without rules, without system and without order because of a German decision."<ref name="politico.eu">Template:Cite news</ref> Seehofer argued that as many as 30% of asylum seekers arriving in Germany claiming to be from Syria are in fact from other countries.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> He argued for a punitive reduction in EU funding for member countries that rejected mandatory refugee quotas.<ref>"Berlin calls for sanctions on EU states that reject refugee quotas Template:Webarchive". Deutsche Welle. 15 September 2015.</ref> Meanwhile, Yasmin Fahimi, secretary-general of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), the junior partner of the ruling coalition, praised Merkel's policy allowing migrants in Hungary to enter Germany as "a strong signal of humanity to show that Europe's values are valid also in difficult times".<ref name="MerkelSplits" /> Merkel's approval rating dropped to 54% in October 2015, the lowest it had been since 2011.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

In November 2015, there were talks inside the governing coalition to stop family unification for migrants for two years and to establish "Transit Zones" on the border. Additionally, there were plans to provide housing to migrants with a low likelihood of getting approved for asylum until the processing of their application. This led to increased tensions between the CSU, who were generally in favour of these measures and threatened to leave the coalition without them, and the SPD, who opposed them; Merkel agreed to the measures.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The November 2015 Paris attacks prompted a reevaluation of the German government's stance on EU migration policy.<ref name="ParisAttacksMigrants">Template:Cite news</ref> While she did not directly limit the number of immigrants, Merkel tightened asylum policy in Germany, for example through more thorough vetting of migrants with respect to internal safety and security.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="ParisAttacksMigrants" />

In August 2016, following the Würzburg train attack in Germany and various other Islamist terror attacks in Europe, Merkel's approval rating dropped to 47%.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Half of Germans did not want her to serve a fourth term in office, with only 42% in favour of another term in office.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In a poll from October that year, her approval rating was found to have risen again; 54% of Germans were found to be satisfied with the work of Merkel as Chancellor.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> According to another poll taken in November 2016, 59% were to found to be in favour of a renewed Chancellorship candidature in 2017.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> According to a poll carried out shortly after the 2016 Berlin truck attack, 56% of Germans named Merkel as a political leader they trusted to solve their country's problems.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

File:Drehscheibe Köln-Bonn Airport - Ankunft Flüchtlinge 5. Oktober 2015-0308.jpg

Migrants in Germany, October 2015

In October 2016, Merkel travelled to Mali and Niger. The diplomatic visit took place to discuss how their governments could improve conditions which caused people to flee those countries and how illegal migration through and from these countries could be reduced.<ref name="Der Spiegel-2016">Template:Cite magazine</ref>

The migrant crisis spurred right-wing electoral preferences across Germany with the Alternative for Germany (AfD) gaining 12% of the vote in the 2017 German federal election. These developments prompted debates over the reasons for increased right-wing populism in Germany. Some researchers have argued that increased right-wing preferences are a result of the European migrant crisis, particularly the increasingly common perception that refugees constitute an ethnic and cultural threat to Germany.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Some observers have described Merkel's policymaking with respect to the migrant crisis as a success.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2022, the United Nations' High Commissioner for Refugees granted Merkel the Nansen Award for her "courage and compassion" during the crisis.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> However, Merkel has also faced significant criticism, particularly with regards to her policymaking early in the crisis, which some critics describe as hypocritically unilateral.<ref name="POLITICO-2018">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="The Irish Times">Template:Cite news</ref>

2018–2021: Third CDU–SPD grand coalition

Election

In the 2017 federal election, Merkel led her party to victory for the fourth time. However, both the CDU/CSU and the SPD received a significantly lower proportion of the vote than they did in 2013, and the CDU/CSU subsequently attempted to form a coalition with the FDP and Greens.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The SPD announced that they would go into the Opposition, both due to their loss of popular support and because the idea of another grand coalition was widely unpopular at the time.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The FDP eventually withdrew from negotiations with the CDU/CSU, leading to a stalemate.<ref name="Connolly">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier subsequently appealed successfully to the SPD to change their hard stance against coalition with the CDU/CSU, and the SPD agreed to a third grand coalition with the CDU/CSU.<ref name="GrosseKoalition">Template:Cite news</ref> The negotiations leading up to this agreement were the longest in German post-war history, lasting almost six months.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

A YouGov survey published in late December 2017 found that just 36% of all respondents wanted Merkel to stay at the helm until 2021, while half of those surveyed voters called for a change at the top before the end of the legislature.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The Fourth Merkel cabinet was sworn in on 14 March 2018.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

2018 government crisis

Template:Main As part of the newly formed government, the CSU's Horst Seehofer took over the role of Interior Minister.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Seehofer announced that he had a "master plan for faster asylum procedures, and more consistent deportations."<ref name="Germany's future interior minister Horst Seehofer vows to increase deportations">Template:Cite news</ref> Under Seehofer's plan, Germany would immediately reject prospective immigrants who had already been deported or were subject to an entry ban. Additionally, the police would be instructed to turn away all applicants who had previously registered elsewhere in the EU, no matter if these countries agreed to take them back.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Merkel feared that unilaterally sending migrants back to neighbouring countries without seeking a multilateral European agreement could endanger the stability of the European Union.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

In June 2018, Seehofer issued an ultimatum to Merkel; as Interior Minister, he could unilaterally implement the policy without her support. Although he eventually agreed to cooperate with Merkel while she negotiated with other EU member countries, he went on to reject the EU agreement that she obtained.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> On 1 July 2018, during a meeting with party leadership, Seehofer declared his intention to resign from his position in protest.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> During the night of 2 July 2018, Seehofer and Merkel announced they had settled their differences and agreed to instead accept a compromise of tighter border control.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> As a result of the agreement, Seehofer agreed to not resign,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and to negotiate bilateral agreements with the specific countries himself. Seehofer received some criticism for his stance in the crisis.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

COVID-19 pandemic

File:Mateusz Morawiecki at the June 2021 EC Meeting (3).jpg

Merkel with UN Secretary-General António Guterres and Polish Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki in Brussels, 24 June 2021

In the initial phases of the pandemic, Germany established a crisis team to manage Germany's containment policy and pandemic response.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In late February 2020, referring to this crisis team, Merkel recommended an approach characterised by moderation and an avoidance of extreme or universal measures (Template:Lang).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

On 18 March 2020, Merkel gave a widely publicised speech on the COVID-19 pandemic, comparing its challenges to the Second World War:<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The speech was well-received both nationally and internationally, receiving widespread attention and an award for "speech of the year".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

On 6 April 2020, Merkel stated: "In my view ... the European Union is facing the biggest test since its foundation and member states must show greater solidarity so that the bloc can emerge stronger from the economic crisis unleashed by the pandemic".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Merkel has won international plaudits for her handling of the pandemic in Germany.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="covid19-atlantic" />

Later that month, Merkel was praised for her accessible explanation of the basic reproduction number, which had been an important metric in the German government's pandemic response.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Merkel opposed mandatory vaccinations, instead stressing scientific literacy and education.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

During the German presidency of the European Council, Merkel spearheaded negotiations for the Next Generation EU reconstruction package.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Succession

On 29 October 2018, Merkel announced that she would not seek reelection as leader of CDU at their party conference in December 2018, but intended to remain as chancellor until the 2021 German federal election was held. She stated that she did not plan to seek any political office after this. The resignations followed October setbacks for the CSU in the Bavarian state election and for the CDU in the Hessian state election.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In August 2019, Merkel hinted that she might return to academia at the end of her term in 2021.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

She decided not to suggest any person as her successor as leader of the CDU.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> However, political observers had long considered Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer as Merkel's protégé groomed for succession. This view was confirmed when Kramp-Karrenbauer – widely seen as the chancellor's favourite for the post – was voted to succeed Merkel as leader of the CDU in December 2018.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Kramp-Karrenbauer's elevation to Defence Minister after Ursula von der Leyen's departure to become president of the European Commission also boosted her standing as Merkel's most likely candidate for succession.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2019, media outlets speculated that Kramp-Karrenbauer might take over Merkel's position as Chancellor sooner than planned if the current governing coalition proved unsustainable.<ref name="ZukunftAMlautTK">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Ich will-2019">Template:Cite news</ref> The possibility was neither confirmed nor denied by the party.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In February 2020, Kramp-Karrenbauer announced that she would resign as party leader of the CDU in the summer, after party members in Thuringia defied official party lines and voted with Alternative for Germany to support an FDP candidate for minister-president.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Kramp-Karrenbauer was succeeded by Armin Laschet at the 2021 CDU leadership election.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In the 2021 federal election, the SPD won the most votes. This necessitated long negotiations among the various parties to form a government. On 23 November 2021, a new grand coalition was announced, with Olaf Scholz nominated to succeed Merkel.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Merkel continued to serve as chancellor until 8 December 2021, when Scholz was sworn in.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The constituency she had held since its establishment in the German reunification was won by Anna Kassautzki (SPD).<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

2022–present: Post-chancellorship

On 31 January 2022, less than two months after she left office, her long-time rival Friedrich Merz, who she beat in 2002 to become leader of the opposition, took over as leader of the CDU.<ref name=EcoFM>Template:Cite web</ref>

On 25 February 2022, only 24 hours after the Russian invasion of Ukraine began, Merkel told the DPA that she "condemned in the strongest terms [...] the war of aggression led by Russia, which marks a profound break in the history of post-Cold War Europe."<ref name="Weider-2022">Template:Cite news</ref>

In April that year, a spokesperson for Merkel stated that she "stood by her position at the NATO summit in Bucharest in 2008", when she had opposed Ukraine's membership in the North Atlantic Alliance, a decision that had come under increased scrutiny.<ref name="Weider-2022" />

On 1 June 2022, Merkel made her first semi-public comments about political affairs since leaving office, at a retirement party for Template:Ill, the president of the German Trade Union Confederation. She criticised the "blatant violation of international law by Russia", expressed solidarity with Ukraine, and argued that "peace and freedom can never be taken for granted."<ref name="Weider-2022" />

On 7 June 2022, Merkel made her first public comments. In an interview with journalist Template:Ill, she defended her past decisions on Ukraine and called Putin's aggression,<ref name="Jackson-2022">Template:Cite news</ref> Template:Blockquote She also said that by the end of her chancellorship in September 2021, it had been clear that Putin was moving in the direction of conflict and that he was finished with the Normandy Format talks.<ref name="dwaml">Template:Cite news</ref>

Following her retirement, Merkel wrote a memoir called Freedom (Template:Langr), with her longtime assistant and adviser, Beate Baumann. It was released on 26 November 2024 with the title Freedom: Memories 1954–2021. The book was published in 30 languages and consists of 736 pages.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

In January 2025, Merkel criticised Friedrich Merz for introducing a non-binding resolution supporting restrictions on immigration that passed in the Bundestag with the help of the AfD.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Following the CDU/CSU's victory in the 2025 German federal election, Merkel attended the first round of voting in the Bundestag to elect Merz as Chancellor on 6 May 2025.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Political positions

Immigration, refugees and migration

In October 2010, Merkel told a meeting of younger members of her conservative Christian Democratic Union (CDU) party at Potsdam that attempts to build a multicultural society in Germany had "utterly failed",<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> stating that: "The concept that we are now living side by side and are happy about it" does not work<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and "we feel attached to the Christian concept of mankind, that is what defines us. Anyone who doesn't accept that is in the wrong place here."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> She continued to say that immigrants should integrate and adopt Germany's culture and values. This added to a growing debate within Germany on the acceptable levels and mechanisms of immigration, its effects on Germany, and the degree to which Muslim immigrants had integrated into German society.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Merkel is in favour of a "mandatory solidarity mechanism" for relocation of asylum-seekers from Italy and Greece to other EU member states as part of the long-term solution to Europe's migrant crisis.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Foreign policy

photograph of Merkel and Obama

Merkel with US president Barack Obama in the Oval Office, 2015

Merkel's foreign policy has focused on strengthening European cooperation and international trade agreements. She and her governments have been closely associated with the change through trade (Template:Lang) policy.<ref name="Matthijs-2021">Template:Cite news</ref> For this, she has come under criticism, especially after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.<ref name="Karnitschnig-2022">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Schulz-2022">Template:Cite news</ref> Merkel has been widely described as the de facto leader of the European Union throughout her tenure as Chancellor.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Forbes">Template:Cite web</ref>

In 2015, with the absence of Stephen Harper, Merkel became the only leader to have attended every G20 meeting since the first in 2008, having been present at a record fifteen summits as of 2021. She hosted the twelfth meeting at the 2017 G20 Hamburg summit.<ref name="G20Announcement">Template:Cite news</ref>

Merkel favors the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union. In December 2012, she stated that its implementation depends on reforms in Ukraine.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Merkel expressed support for Israel's right to self-defence in the context of the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict. She telephoned Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu on 9 July to condemn "without reservation rocket fire on Israel".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

On 20 June 2018, which was World Refugee Day, Merkel said that there had been "no moral or political justification" for the post-war expulsion of ethnic Germans from Central and Eastern European countries.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Social expenditure

At the World Economic Forum in Davos, 2013, Merkel said that Europe had only 7% of the global population and produced only 25% of the global GDP, but that it accounted for almost 50% of global social expenditure. She went on to say that Europe could only maintain its prosperity by being innovative and measuring itself against the best.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> After this, the comparison became a central element in major speeches.<ref>Among others, in her speech on the occasion of her honorary doctoral degree at the University of Szeged in Hungary, see Template:Cite web</ref> The international financial press has widely commented on her thesis, with The Economist saying:

The Financial Times commented: "Although Ms Merkel stopped short of suggesting that a ceiling on social spending might be one yardstick for measuring competitiveness, she hinted as much in the light of soaring social spending in the face of an ageing population.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Climate policy

Merkel has been credited as a key part of 2007 G8 negotiations that led to a significantly more ambitious renewable energy transition commitment than had been anticipated.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

In September 2010, the coalition government published a long-term plan for sustainable development of the electrical grid until 2050; efforts to transition to sustainable and otherwise preferable sources of energy have been termed Energy Transition (Template:Lang). Although the initial plan was criticised for lifetime extensions of nuclear power plants, it was amended following the Fukushima nuclear disaster, and the last nuclear power plants in Germany were shut down in April 2023.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The plan also aimed at a 40% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2020, a goal that was initially achieved largely due to reductions in demand during the COVID-19 pandemic.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> However, emissions increased to a level above the target in 2022.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In preparation for the 2015 Paris Climate Change Conference, Merkel announced that Germany would significantly increase its contributions to international climate aid and financing by 2020.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2016, some observers criticised Merkel's lack of action with regards to climate change that year.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2017, Merkel criticised the Trump administration's decision to withdraw from the 2015 Paris Agreement and reaffirmed the commitment of the remaining G20 members to the treaty.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In early 2019, a governmental commission appointed by the coalition government approved a plan to phase out coal power plants by 2038, allocating a budget of Template:Currency billion to the plan.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

In September 2019, the Merkel government announced a set of climate change mitigation policies with a total budget of Template:Currency billion.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Although described as a "new beginning for Germany's climate policy" by then-minister of the environment Svenja Schulze,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> the package was widely criticised; environmental protection groups have labelled it insufficient, and opposition parties have argued that it is ineffective.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Prominent climate scientists have called it "a failure of the political system"<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and "ridiculous".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Fiscal policy

In 2009, Merkel announced plans to take on additional government debt in order to stimulate economic growth, arguing that this should take priority over other fiscal concerns.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Merkel government's tax policy at the time was widely criticised, mostly for taking on additional debt instead of increasing tax rates at high levels of income.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2010, Merkel expressed support for a global financial transaction tax, but was ultimately unsuccessful in international negotiations on the matter.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In 2019, Merkel argued for the importance of a balanced government budget, rejecting calls for additional investment to stimulate growth.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Criticism

Merkel has been criticised for being personally present and involved at the M100 Media Award handover<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> to Danish cartoonist Kurt Westergaard, who had triggered the Muhammad cartoons controversy. This happened at a time of fierce debate over a book by the former Deutsche Bundesbank executive and finance senator of Berlin Thilo Sarrazin, which was critical of Muslim immigration.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> At the same time, she condemned a planned burning of Qurans by a fundamentalist pastor in Florida.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Central Council of Muslims in Germany<ref>BBC: Germany's Central Muslim Council (Zentralrat der Muslime in Deutschland) criticised Mrs. Merkel for attending the award ceremony. 8 September 2010. A ZMD spokesman, Aiman Mazyek, told public broadcaster Deutschlandradio that the Chancellor was honouring someone "who in our eyes kicked our prophet, and therefore kicked all Muslims". He said giving Mr Westergaard the prize in a "highly charged and heated time" was "highly problematic".</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and the Left Party<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> (Die Linke) as well as the German Green PartyTemplate:Efn<ref name="Award for D------ Muhammad Cartoonist">Template:Cite news</ref> criticised the action by the centre-right chancellor. The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung newspaper wrote: "This will probably be the most explosive moment of her chancellorship so far."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The term alternativlos (German for "without an alternative"), which was frequently used by Angela Merkel to describe her measures addressing the European sovereign-debt crisis, was named the Un-word of the Year 2010 by a jury of linguistic scholars. The wording was criticised as undemocratic, as any discussion on Merkel's politics would thus be deemed unnecessary or undesirable.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The expression is credited for the name of the political party Alternative for Germany, which was founded in 2013.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

During a visit of U.S. President Barack Obama in Berlin, Merkel said on 19 June 2013 in the context of the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures: "The Internet is uncharted territory for us all" (Template:Langx). This statement led to various internet memes and online mockery of Merkel.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

During a state visit of the Turkish prime minister Ahmet Davutoğlu in January 2015, Merkel stated that "Islam is part of Germany", which induced criticism from within her party. Parliamentary group leader Volker Kauder stated that Muslims belong to Germany, but Islam does not, and that Muslims should "ask themselves why so many violent people refer to the Quran."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>"Gehört der Islam zu Deutschland? Kauder widerspricht Merkel" Template:Webarchive, Idea, 19 January 2015 Template:In lang</ref>

At the conclusion of the May 2017 Group of Seven's leaders in Sicily, Merkel criticised American efforts to renege on earlier commitments on climate change. According to Merkel, the discussions were difficult and marred by dissent. "Here we have the situation where six members, or even seven if you want to add the EU, stand against one."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Merkel has faced criticism for failing to take a tough line on the People's Republic of China.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Asia Times reported that "Unlike certain of her European counterparts, her China diplomacy has focused on non-interference in Beijing's internal affairs. As such, Merkel was reportedly furious when her Foreign Minister Heiko Maas received Hong Kong dissident Joshua Wong in Berlin in September [2019], a move that Beijing publicly protested."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Merkel's government decided to phase out both nuclear power and coal plants and supported the European Commission's Green Deal plans.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="nuclear-exit">Template:Cite news</ref> Critics blamed the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and closure of nuclear plants for contributing to the 2021–2022 global energy crisis.<ref name="nuclear-exit" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Merkel faced renewed criticisms that she had failed to curb Russian president Vladimir Putin's ambitions and aggression by insisting on diplomacy and détente policies.<ref name="CNBCUkraine">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="PoliticoUkraine">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Voice of America-2022">Template:Cite news</ref> Critics argued that under her tenure, Germany and Europe was weakened by a dependency on Russian natural gas, including the Nord Stream 1 and Nord Stream 2 pipelines,<ref name="CNBCUkraine" /><ref name="PoliticoUkraine" /> and that the German military was neglected, disorganised, and underfunded.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Voice of America-2022" /> By late 2021, Germany was importing 55% of its gas, 34% of its oil, and 52% of its coal from Russia.<ref name="telegraph">Template:Cite news</ref>

Merkel's chancellorship has become tightly associated with the policy of Wandel durch Handel, which advocates pursuing close economic ties with authoritarian governments with the goal of inducing democratization. When the Wandel durch Handel policy came under intense domestic and international scrutiny following the Russian invasion, Merkel received much of the blame,<ref name="Matthijs-2021" /><ref name="Schulz-2022" /> leading Politico to write "[n]o German is more responsible for the crisis in Ukraine than Merkel".<ref name="Karnitschnig-2022" /> Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy also blamed Merkel and then-French president Nicolas Sarkozy's decision to block Ukraine from joining NATO in 2008 for the war; Merkel released a statement that she stands by her decision,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> later adding that the war would have broken out earlier at a greater military disadvantage for Ukraine.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Legacy and public image

International perceptions

File:Angela Merkel tenure graphic.svg

Angela Merkel's tenure as Chancellor compared to heads of government in the EU and UK

Merkel was widely described as the de facto leader of the European Union throughout her tenure as Chancellor. She was named the world's second most powerful person by Forbes magazine in 2012 and 2015, following Barack Obama and Vladimir Putin respectively, the highest ranking ever achieved by a woman.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> On 26 March 2014, Merkel became the longest-serving incumbent head of government in the European Union. In December 2015, Merkel was named as Time magazine's Person of the Year, with the magazine's cover declaring her to be the "Chancellor of the Free World".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2018, Merkel was named the most powerful woman in the world for a record fourteenth time by Forbes.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Following the election of Donald Trump to the US presidency in 2016, Merkel was described by The New York Times as "the Liberal West's Last Defender",<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and as the "leader of the free world" by a number of commentators, including Hillary Clinton.<ref name="Clarke-2018">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Moulson-2018">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="politicomeet">Template:Cite web</ref> In a 2018 survey, Merkel was found to be the most widely respected world leader.<ref name="Deutsche Welle-2018">Template:Cite web</ref> The Atlantic described her in 2019 as "the world's most successful living politician, on the basis of both achievement and longevity".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Harvard University President Larry Bacow described her as "one of the most widely admired and broadly influential statespeople of our time".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Critics have argued that Merkel's policymaking during the 2015 migrant crisis has damaged the integrity of the EU.<ref name="POLITICO-2018" /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="The Irish Times" /> Some have also commented that Germany's failure to meet financial commitments to NATO,<ref name="The Washington Times" /> Merkel's blocking of the accession of Ukraine to NATO in 2008,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and the abolishment of conscription have together weakened the positions of Germany and Europe following the Russian invasion of Ukraine.

In 2023, Merkel received a doctorate honoris causa from the Paris Institute of Political Sciences in recognition of her political career.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Domestic image

Merkel has been described as having significantly shaped the political landscape of Germany, particularly the perceptions of those who grew up during her chancellorship; this demographic group has been referred to Template:Lang (Template:Translation).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="The attitudes of Germany's young">Template:Cite news</ref>

Comparisons

As a woman who is a politician from a centre-right party and also a scientist, Merkel has been compared by many in the English-language press to 20th-century British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. Thatcher also had a science degree from Oxford University in chemistry. Some have referred to her as "Iron Lady", "Iron Girl", and even "The Iron Frau", all alluding to Thatcher, whose nickname was "The Iron Lady". Political commentators have debated the precise extent to which their agendas are similar.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Later in her tenure, Merkel acquired the nickname "Mutti" (a German familiar form of "mother"). She has also been called the "Iron Chancellor", in reference to Otto von Bismarck.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Al Jazeera has criticised the "Iron Lady" nickname for Merkel as "wrong-headed", noting her pro-European stance, her efforts to combat "profit-seeking speculators" during the euro crisis, and her lacking Thatcher's "my-way-or-the-highway" attitude towards politics.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Personal life

File:Pedro Sánchez y Angela Merkel 02.jpg

Spanish Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez, Begoña Gómez, Merkel, and her husband Joachim Sauer, 2018

In 1977, at the age of 23, Merkel, then Angela Kasner, married physics student Ulrich Merkel (born 1953)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and took his surname. The couple divorced in 1982.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Her second and current husband is quantum chemist and professor Joachim Sauer, who has largely avoided media attention during and after Merkel's political career.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> They first met in 1981<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and married in 1998.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Merkel has no children, but Sauer has two adult sons from a previous marriage.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Having grown up in East Germany, Merkel learned Russian at school. She was able to speak informally to Vladimir Putin in Russian but conducted diplomatic dialogue through an interpreter. She rarely spoke English in public, but delivered a small section of an address to the British Parliament in English in 2014.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Merkel is a fervent football fan and was known to listen to games while in the Bundestag and to attend games of the national team in her official capacity, including Germany's 1–0 victory against Argentina in the 2014 World Cup Final.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Merkel has stated that her favorite film is The Legend of Paul and Paula, an East German movie released in 1973.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Merkel has a fear of dogs, which developed after she was attacked by one in 1995.<ref name="CNN Putin">Template:Cite news</ref> Vladimir Putin brought in his Labrador Retriever during a press conference in 2007. Putin claims he did not mean to scare her, though Merkel later observed, "I understand why he has to do this – to prove he's a man. ... He's afraid of his own weakness."<ref name="CNN Putin" />

Since 2017, Merkel has occasionally been seen shaking visibly on several public occasions, recovering shortly afterwards.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> After one such occasion, she attributed the shaking to dehydration, saying that she felt better after a drink of water.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In September 2021, after evading the question for most of her career, Merkel said that she considered herself a feminist. The statement came in a conference along with Nigerian writer and feminist Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Since her retirement, Merkel has commented on the Russian invasion of Ukraine but has otherwise limited her involvement in political matters. She has instead focused on travelling, attending only "feel-good events" (Template:Lang) in a private capacity.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Merkel reportedly "detested" U.S. President Donald Trump, according to Politico, citing a forthcoming book by Jonathan Karl.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Religion

File:Ev Kirchentag 2011 in Dresden 71.jpg

Merkel speaking at the 2011 German Protestant Church Assembly in Dresden

Angela Merkel is a Lutheran member of the Evangelical Church in Berlin, Brandenburg and Silesian Upper Lusatia (Template:Langx), a United Protestant (i.e. both Reformed and Lutheran) church body under the umbrella of the Protestant Church in Germany. The EKBO is a member of the Union of Protestant Churches in the EKD.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Before the 2004 merger of the Evangelical Church in Berlin-Brandenburg and the Evangelical Church in Silesian Upper Lusatia, Merkel belonged to the former. In 2012, Merkel said, regarding her faith: "I am a member of the Protestant Church. I believe in God and religion is also my constant companion, and has been for the whole of my life. We as Christians should above all not be afraid of standing up for our beliefs."<ref>Template:Cite web
Template:Cite web</ref> She also publicly declared that Germany suffers not from "too much Islam" but "too little Christianity".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In the arts and media

Since 1991, Merkel has sat annually for sitting and standing portraits by, and interview with, Herlinde Koelbl.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Merkel was portrayed by Swiss actress Anna Katarina in the 2012 political satire film The Dictator.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Merkel features as a main character in two of the three plays that make up the Europeans Trilogy (Bruges, Antwerp, and Tervuren) by Paris-based UK playwright Nick Awde: Bruges (2014) and Tervuren (2016). A character named Merkel, accompanied by a sidekick called Schäuble, also appears as the sinister female henchman in Michael Paraskos's novel In Search of Sixpence.<ref>Paraskos, Michael, In Search of Sixpence (London: Friction Press, 2016).</ref>

On the American sketch-comedy series Saturday Night Live, Merkel has been parodied by Kate McKinnon.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

On the British sketch-comedy Tracey Ullman's Show, comedian Tracey Ullman has parodied Merkel to international acclaim.<ref>"True total hottie Frau": Die bislang beste Merkel – Parodie kommt von der BBC Template:Webarchive, Buzzer, 21 January 2016.</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

In 2016, a documentary film Angela Merkel – The Unexpected was produced by Broadview TV and MDR in collaboration with Arte and Das Erste.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In 2024, a German TV show called 'Miss Merkel' reimagined her as a detective.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is based on the bestselling novels by German writer David Safier and is a comedy that was a hit in Germany and then shown on public broadcaster RAI, dubbed into Italian.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

See also

• Public image of Angela Merkel
• Willkommenskultur

Further reading

• Clark, Claudia. Dear Barack: The Extraordinary Partnership of Barack Obama and Angela Merkel (2021)
• Crossley-Frolick, Katy A. "Domestic Constraints, German Foreign Policy and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding." German Politics and Society 31.3 (2013): 43–75.
• Czuczka, Tony and Alan Crawford. Angela Merkel: A Chancellorship Forged in Crisis (2013) excerpt
• Ferree, Myra Marx. "Angela Merkel: What Does It Mean to Run as a Woman?" German Politics & Society 2006. 24#78: 93–107. online
• Faas, Thorsten. "The German federal election of 2013: Merkel's triumph, the disappearance of the liberal party, and yet another grand coalition." West European Politics 38.1 (2015): 238–247.
• Kornelius, Stefan. Angela Merkel: The Chancellor and Her World: The Authorized Biography (Alma Books, 2014).
• Marton, Kati. The Chancellor: The Remarkable Odyssey of Angela Merkel (Simon & Schuster, 2021)
• Masch, Lena, and Oscar W. Gabriel. "How Emotional Displays of Political Leaders Shape Citizen Attitudes: The Case of German Chancellor Angela Merkel." German Politics 29.2 (2020): 158–179.
• Mills, Cliff. Angela Merkel (2008), for middle schools online
• Mushaben, Joyce Marie. "The Best of Times, the Worst of Times: Angela Merkel, the Grand Coalition, and 'Majority Rule' in Germany." German Politics and Society 34.1 (2016): 1–25.
• Mushaben, Joyce Marie. Becoming Madam Chancellor: Angela Merkel and the Berlin Republic (2017) excerpt
• Mushaben, Joyce Marie. "A Spectre Haunting Europe: Angela Merkel and the Challenges of Far-Right Populism." German Politics and Society 38.1 (2020): 7–29.
• Mushaben, Joyce Marie. "The reluctant feminist: Angela Merkel and the modernization of gender politics in Germany." Femina Politica–Zeitschrift für feministische Politikwissenschaft 27.2 (2018): 83–95. online
• Qvortrup, Matthew. Angela Merkel: Europe's most influential leader (2016) excerpt
• Saalfeld, Thomas. "Coalition Governance under Chancellor Merkel's Grand Coalition: A Comparison of the Cabinets Merkel I and Merkel II." German Politics and Society 28.3 (2010): 82–102.
• Schramm, Julia. Fifty Shades of Merkel. (Hoffmann & Campe, 2016), Template:ISBN
• Schnee, Christian. "Sticking to her guns or going with the flow: assessing rigidity and flexibility in Angela Merkel's political decision making." German Politics and Society 37.1 (2019): 24–46.
• Schoen, Harald. "Merely a referendum on Chancellor Merkel? Parties, issues and candidates in the 2009 German federal election." German Politics 20.1 (2011): 92–106.
• Schoen, Harald, and Robert Greszki. "A Third Term for a Popular Chancellor: An Analysis of Voting Behaviour in the 2013 German Federal Election." German Politics 23.4 (2014): 251–267.
• Skard, Torild (2014) "Angela Merkel" in Women of Power – Half a Century of Female presidents and Prime Ministers Worldwide, Bristol: Policy Press, Template:ISBN
• Van Halsema, Catherine. 2019. "Merkel the Mutti? A Linguistic Analysis of Domestic Language in European News Media Coverage of Angela Merkel." Women & Language. 42(1): 7–22.
• Voigt, Linda. "Get the party started: The social policy of the grand coalition 2013–2017." German Politics 28.3 (2019): 426–443.
• Zehfuss, Maja. "'We Can Do This': Merkel, Migration and the Fantasy of Control." International Political Sociology 15.2 (2021): 172–189.

In German

• Plickert, Philip (Editor) (2017) Merkel. Eine kritische Bilanz, FinanzBuch Verlag, Template:ISBN.
• Margaret Heckel: So regiert die Kanzlerin. Eine Reportage. Piper, München 2009, Template:ISBN.
• Volker Resing: Angela Merkel. Die Protestantin. Ein Porträt. St. Benno-Verlag, Leipzig 2009, Template:ISBN.
• Gertrud Höhler: Die Patin. Wie Angela Merkel Deutschland umbaut. Orell Füssli, Zürich 2012, Template:ISBN.
• Stefan Kornelius: Angela Merkel. Die Kanzlerin und ihre Welt. Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 2013, Template:ISBN.
• Nikolaus Blome: Angela Merkel – Die Zauderkünstlerin. Pantheon, München 2013, Template:ISBN.
• Stephan Hebel: Mutter Blamage – Warum die Nation Angela Merkel und ihre Politik nicht braucht. Westend, Frankfurt am Main 2013, Template:ISBN.
• Günther Lachmann, Ralf Georg Reuth: Das erste Leben der Angela M. Piper, München 2013, Template:ISBN.
• Judy Dempsey: Das Phänomen Merkel – Deutschlands Macht und Möglichkeiten. Edition Körber-Stiftung, Hamburg 2013, Template:ISBN.
• Dirk Kurbjuweit: Alternativlos – Merkel, die Deutschen und das Ende der Politik. Hanser, München, 2014, Template:ISBN.

External links

• Official Website of Angela Merkel's office Template:In lang
• Template:Webarchive
• Template:Webarchive Template:In lang
• Angela Merkel at the Encyclopædia Britannica
• Appearances on C-SPAN
• Angela Merkel on IMDb
• Template:Bloomberg topic
• Angela Merkel collected news and commentary at The Economist
• Angela Merkel collected news and commentary at Forbes
• "Angela Merkel collected news and commentary". The New York Times.
• Angela Merkel collected news and commentary at Time
• Packer, George (1 December 2014). "The Quiet German". The New Yorker: 46–63. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 9 December 2014. The article describes Angela Merkel's life and career in East Germany and her subsequent rise to Chancellor of Germany following German reunification.
• Deutsche Welle documentary about Merkel's term in office by Deutsche Welle (in English).

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