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Diphthong

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File:En-us-no highway cowboys.ogg
American English pronunciation of "no highway cowboys" /noʊ ˈhaɪweɪ ˈkaʊbɔɪz/, showing five diphthongs: Template:IPAc-en

A diphthong (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell),<ref>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> also known as a gliding vowel or a vowel glide, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable.<ref>Template:Cite Merriam-Webster</ref> Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of the speech apparatus) moves during the pronunciation of the vowel. In most varieties of English, the phrase "no highway cowboys" (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell) has five distinct diphthongs, one in every syllable.

Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs, where the tongue or other speech organs do not move and the syllable contains only a single vowel sound. For instance, in English, the word ah is spoken as a monophthong (Template:IPAc-en), while the word ow is spoken as a diphthong in most varieties (Template:IPAc-en). Where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables (e.g. in the English word re-elect) the result is described as hiatus, not as a diphthong.

Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run together in rapid speech during a conversation. However, there are also unitary diphthongs, as in the English examples above, which are heard by listeners as single-vowel sounds (phonemes).<ref name=Sil>Template:Cite web</ref>

The word comes Template:Etymology, Template:Etymology.

Transcription

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In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), monophthongs are transcribed with one symbol, as in English sun Template:IPA, in which Template:Angbr IPA represents a monophthong. Diphthongs are transcribed with two symbols, as in English high Template:IPA or cow Template:IPA, in which Template:Angbr IPA and Template:Angbr IPA represent diphthongs.

Diphthongs may be transcribed with two vowel symbols or with a vowel symbol and a semivowel symbol. In the words above, the less prominent member of the diphthong can be represented with the symbols for the palatal approximant Template:IPAblink and the labiovelar approximant Template:IPAblink, with the symbols for the close vowels Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink, or the symbols for the near-close vowels Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink:

vowel and semivowel Template:Angbr IPA broad transcription
two vowel symbols Template:Angbr IPA
Template:Angbr IPA narrow transcription

Some transcriptions are broader or narrower (less precise or more precise phonetically) than others. Transcribing the English diphthongs in high and cow as Template:Angbr IPA or Template:Angbr IPA is a less precise or broader transcription, since these diphthongs usually end in a vowel sound that is more open than the semivowels Template:IPA or the close vowels Template:IPA. Transcribing the diphthongs as Template:Angbr IPA is a more precise or narrower transcription, since the English diphthongs usually end in the near-close vowels Template:IPA.

The non-syllabic diacritic, the inverted breve below Template:Angbr,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> is placed under the less prominent part of a diphthong to show that it is part of a diphthong rather than a vowel in a separate syllable: Template:IPA. When there is no contrastive vowel sequence in the language, the diacritic may be omitted. Other common indications that the two sounds are not separate vowels are a superscript, Template:Angbr IPA,<ref>Used e.g. by Template:Citation The author states that the Afrikaans diphthongs Template:IPA can be transcribed Template:IPA.</ref> or a tie bar, Template:Angbr IPA or Template:Angbr IPA.<ref>Used e.g. by Template:Citation. The author transcribes the diphthongs Template:Angbr as Template:IPA. However, on page 36, he admits that phonetically, Template:IPA are more precise symbols.</ref> The tie bar can be useful when it is not clear which symbol represents the syllable nucleus, or when they have equal weight.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Superscripts are especially used when an on- or off-glide is particularly fleeting.<ref>Template:Cite conference The authors contrast Template:Angbr IPA from Template:Angbr IPA from Template:Angbr IPA.</ref>

The period Template:Angbr IPA is the opposite of the non-syllabic diacritic: it represents a syllable break. If two vowels next to each other belong to two different syllables (hiatus), meaning that they do not form a diphthong, they can be transcribed with two vowel symbols with a period in between. Thus, lower can be transcribed Template:Angbr IPA, with a period separating the first syllable, Template:IPAc-en, from the second syllable, Template:Angbr IPA.

The non-syllabic diacritic is used only when necessary. It is typically omitted when there is no ambiguity, as in Template:Angbr IPA. No words in English have the vowel sequences Template:IPA, so the non-syllabic diacritic is unnecessary.

Types

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Falling and rising

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Falling (or descending) diphthongs start with a vowel quality of higher prominence (higher pitch or volume) and end in a semivowel with less prominence, like Template:IPA in eye, while rising (or ascending) diphthongs begin with a less prominent semivowel and end with a more prominent full vowel, similar to the Template:IPA in yard. (Sometimes, however, the terms "falling" and "rising" are used, instead, to refer to vowel height, i.e. as synonyms of the terms "closing" and "opening".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> See below.) The less prominent component in the diphthong may also be transcribed as an approximant, thus Template:IPA in eye and Template:IPA in yard. However, when the diphthong is analysed as a single phoneme, both elements are often transcribed with vowel symbols (Template:IPA, Template:IPA). Semivowels and approximants are not equivalent in all treatments, and in the English and Italian languages, among others, many phoneticians do not consider rising combinations to be diphthongs, but rather sequences of approximant and vowel. There are many languages (such as Romanian) that contrast one or more rising diphthongs with similar sequences of a glide and a vowel in their phonetic inventory<ref name="Chiorana">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> (see semivowel for examples).

Closing, opening, and centering

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File:Belgian Dutch diphthongs chart.svg
Vowel diagram illustrating closing diphthongs of Belgian Standard Dutch, from Template:Harvcoltxt
File:Orsmaal-Gussenhoven Dutch centering diphthongs chart.svg
Vowel diagram illustrating centering diphthongs of the Dutch dialect of Orsmaal-Gussenhoven, from Template:Harvcoltxt

In closing diphthongs, the second element is more close than the first (e.g. Template:IPA); in opening diphthongs, the second element is more open (e.g. Template:IPA). Closing diphthongs tend to be falling (Template:IPA), and opening diphthongs are generally rising (Template:IPA),<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> as open vowels are more sonorous and therefore tend to be more prominent. However, exceptions to this rule are not rare in the world's languages. In Finnish, for instance, the opening diphthongs Template:IPA and Template:IPA are true falling diphthongs, since they begin louder and with higher pitch and fall in prominence during the diphthong.

A third, rare type of diphthong that is neither opening nor closing is height-harmonic diphthongs, with both elements at the same vowel height.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> These may have occurred in Old English:

A centering diphthong is one that begins with a more peripheral vowel and ends with a more central one, such as Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA in Received Pronunciation or Template:IPA and Template:IPA in Irish. Many centering diphthongs are also opening diphthongs (Template:IPA, Template:IPA).

Diphthongs may contrast in how far they open or close. For example, Samoan contrasts low-to-mid with low-to-high diphthongs:

Narrow and wide

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Narrow diphthongs are the ones that end with a vowel which on a vowel chart is quite close to the one that begins the diphthong, for example Northern Dutch Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA. Wide diphthongs are the opposite – they require a greater tongue movement, and their offsets are farther away from their starting points on the vowel chart. Examples of wide diphthongs are RP/GA English Template:IPA and Template:IPA.

Length

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Languages differ in the length of diphthongs, measured in terms of morae. In languages with phonemically short and long vowels, diphthongs typically behave like long vowels, and are pronounced with a similar length.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In languages with only one phonemic length for pure vowels, however, diphthongs may behave like pure vowels.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> For example, in Icelandic, both monophthongs and diphthongs are pronounced long before single consonants and short before most consonant clusters.

Some languages contrast short and long diphthongs. In some languages, such as Old English, these behave like short and long vowels, occupying one and two morae, respectively. Languages that contrast three quantities in diphthongs are extremely rare, but not unheard of; Northern Sami is known to contrast long, short and "finally stressed" diphthongs, the last of which are distinguished by a longer second element.<ref name="Aikio 2022">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp

Phonology

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In some languages, diphthongs are single phonemes, while in others they are analyzed as sequences of two vowels, or of a vowel and a semivowel.

Sound changes

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Certain sound changes relate to diphthongs and monophthongs. Vowel breaking or diphthongization is a vowel shift in which a monophthong becomes a diphthong. Monophthongization or smoothing is a vowel shift in which a diphthong becomes a monophthong.

Difference from semivowels and vowel sequences

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While there are a number of similarities, diphthongs are not the same phonologically as a combination of a vowel and an approximant or glide. Most importantly, diphthongs are fully contained in the syllable nucleus<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> while a semivowel or glide is restricted to the syllable boundaries (either the onset or the coda). This often manifests itself phonetically by a greater degree of constriction,<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> but the phonetic distinction is not always clear.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> The English word yes, for example, consists of a palatal glide followed by a monophthong rather than a rising diphthong. In addition, the segmental elements must be different in diphthongs Template:IPA and so when it occurs in a language, it does not contrast with Template:IPA. However, it is possible for languages to contrast Template:IPA and Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Diphthongs are also distinct from sequences of simple vowels. The Bunaq language of Timor, for example, distinguishes Template:IPA 'exit' from Template:IPA 'be amused', Template:IPA 'dance' from Template:IPA 'stare at', and Template:IPA 'choice' from Template:IPA 'good'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Some languages or dialects also articulate the component sounds of a diphthong differently than when those sounds are produced in hiatus. For example, due to English diphthong raising, many North American English speakers pronounce Template:IPA with closer vowels than Template:IPA, and, among a subset of those, the diphthong Template:IPA may be similarly raised as compared to Template:IPA.

Examples

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Indo-European languages

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English

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Template:See also

In words coming from Middle English, most cases of the Modern English diphthongs Template:IPA originate from the Middle English long monophthongs Template:IPA through the Great Vowel Shift, although some cases of Template:IPA originate from the Middle English diphthongs Template:IPA.

Standard English diphthongs
English
diaphoneme 		RP (British) Australian S.W. Irish North American
GenAm Canadian
low Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
loud Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA<ref group=t2 name=pitt>In Pittsburgh English, Template:IPA is monophthongal Template:IPA, leading to the stereotypical spelling "Dahntahn" for "downtown".</ref> Template:IPA
lout Template:IPA<ref group="t2" name="ce1">Canadian English and some dialects of northern American English exhibit allophony of Template:IPA and Template:IPA called Canadian raising – in some places they have become separate phonemes. GA has raising to a lesser extent in Template:IPA.</ref>
lied Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA<ref group=t2 name=sus>In several American dialects such as Southern American English, Template:IPA becomes monophthongal [aː] except before voiceless consonants.</ref>
light Template:IPA<ref group=t2 name=ce1/>
lay Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
loin Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
loon Template:IPA<ref group=t2 name=md4>The erstwhile monophthongs Template:IPA and Template:IPA are diphthongized in many dialects. In many cases they might be better transcribed as Template:IPA and Template:IPA, where the non-syllabic element is understood to be closer than the syllabic element. They are sometimes transcribed Template:IPA and Template:IPA.</ref> Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
lean Template:IPA<ref group=t2 name=md4/> Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
leer Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
lair Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
lure Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA

Template:Reflist

Dutch

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Diphthongs of Dutch
Netherlandic<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> Belgian<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>
zeis, ijs Template:IPA
ui Template:IPA
zout, louw Template:IPA Template:IPA
leeuw Template:IPA
nieuw Template:IPA
duw Template:IPA
dooi Template:IPA
saai Template:IPA
loei Template:IPA
beet<ref group=t1 name=t-one>Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA are normally pronounced as closing diphthongs except when preceding Template:IPA, in which case they are either centering diphthongs: Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA or are lengthened and monophthongized to Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA</ref> Template:IPA Template:IPA
neus<ref group=t1 name=t-one/> Template:IPA Template:IPA
boot<ref group=t1 name=t-one/> Template:IPA Template:IPA

Template:Reflist

The dialect of Hamont (in Limburg) has five centring diphthongs and contrasts long and short forms of Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Afrikaans

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The Afrikaans language has its origin in Dutch but differs in many significant ways, including the use of diphthongs in the place of several non-diphthong Dutch double vowels, or double-vowels being pronounced differently. Examples include:

  • ee as in leer
  • eu as in deur
  • ui as in buite
Diphthong phonemesTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
Starting point Ending point
Front Central Back
Closed Template:Small Template:IPA
Template:Small Template:IPA
Mid Template:Small Template:IPA Template:IPA
Template:Small Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
Open Template:Small Template:IPA
Example words for diphthongs
Phoneme IPA Orthography Gloss
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang 'son'
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang 'he'
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang 'to know'
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang 'house'
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang 'burlap'
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang 'bread'
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang 'cold'
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang 'many'

The long diphthongs (or 'double vowels') are phonemically sequences of a free vowel and a non-syllabic equivalent of Template:IPA or Template:IPA: Template:IPA. Both Template:IPA and Template:IPA tend to be pronounced as Template:IPA, but they are spelled differently: the former as Template:Angbr, the latter as Template:Angbr.Template:Sfnp

In diminutives ending in Template:IPA formed to monosyllabic nouns, the vowels Template:IPA are realised as closing diphthongs Template:IPA. In the same environment, the sequences Template:IPA are realized as Template:IPA, i.e. as closing diphthongs followed by palatal nasal.Template:Sfnp

German

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Standard German
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Phonemic diphthongs in German:

In the varieties of German that vocalize the Template:IPA in the syllable coda, other diphthongal combinations may occur. These are only phonetic diphthongs, not phonemic diphthongs, since the vocalic pronunciation Template:IPA alternates with consonantal pronunciations of Template:IPA if a vowel follows, cf. Template:Lang Template:IPA 'you hear' – Template:Lang Template:IPA 'I hear'. These phonetic diphthongs may be as follows:

File:German ɐ diphthongs chart - part 1.svg
German diphthongs ending in Template:IPA (part 1), from Template:Harvcoltxt
File:German ɐ diphthongs chart - part 2.svg
German diphthongs ending in Template:IPA (part 2), from Template:Harvcoltxt
Diphthong Example
Phonemically Phonetically IPA Orthography Translation
Template:IPA Template:IPATemplate:Ref Template:IPA Template:Lang we
Template:IPA Template:IPATemplate:Ref Template:IPA Template:Lang for
Template:IPA Template:IPATemplate:Ref Template:IPA Template:Lang holiday
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang he/she/it becomes
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang dignity
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang I/he/she/it became
Template:IPA Template:IPATemplate:Ref Template:IPA Template:Lang more
Template:IPA Template:IPATemplate:Ref Template:IPA Template:Lang (you) hear!
Template:IPA Template:IPATemplate:Ref Template:IPA Template:Lang gate/goal (in football)
Template:IPA Template:IPATemplate:Ref Template:IPA Template:Lang bear
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang Erft
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang he/she/it dries
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang north
Template:IPA Template:IPATemplate:Ref Template:IPA Template:Lang true
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:Lang hard
Template:NoteTemplate:Harvcoltxt notes that the length contrast is not very stable before non-prevocalic Template:IPA<ref name="Wiese198">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> and that "Template:Harvcoltxt, following the pronouncing dictionaries (Template:Harvcoltxt, Template:Harvcoltxt) judge the vowel in Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang to be long, while the vowel in Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang is supposed to be short. The factual basis of this presumed distinction seems very questionable."<ref name="Wiese198"/><ref>Also supported by Template:Harvcoltxt.</ref> He goes on stating that in his own dialect, there is no length difference in these words, and that judgements on vowel length in front of non-prevocalic Template:IPA which is itself vocalized are problematic, in particular if Template:IPA precedes.<ref name="Wiese198"/>
According to the 'lengthless' analysis, the aforementioned 'long' diphthongs are analyzed as Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA. This makes non-prevocalic Template:IPA and Template:IPA homophonous as Template:IPA or Template:IPA. Non-prevocalic Template:IPA and Template:IPA may also merge, but the vowel chart in Template:Harvcoltxt shows that they have somewhat different starting points.
Template:Harvcoltxt also states that "laxing of the vowel is predicted to take place in shortened vowels; it does indeed seem to go hand in hand with the vowel shortening in many cases."<ref name="Wiese198"/>
Bernese German
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The diphthongs of some German dialects differ from standard German diphthongs. The Bernese German diphthongs, for instance, correspond rather to the Middle High German diphthongs than to standard German diphthongs:

Apart from these phonemic diphthongs, Bernese German has numerous phonetic diphthongs due to L-vocalization in the syllable coda, for instance the following ones:

Yiddish

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Yiddish has three diphthongs:<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Diphthongs may reach a higher target position (towards Template:IPA) in situations of coarticulatory phenomena or when words with such vowels are being emphasized.

Norwegian

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There are five diphthongs in the Oslo dialect of Norwegian, all of them falling:

An additional diphthong, Template:IPA, occurs only in the word hui in the expression i hui og hast "in great haste". The number and form of diphthongs vary between dialects.

Faroese

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Diphthongs in Faroese are:

Icelandic

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Diphthongs in Icelandic are the following:

Combinations of semivowel Template:IPA and a vowel are the following:

French

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In French, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA may be considered true diphthongs (that is, fully contained in the syllable nucleus: Template:IPA). Other sequences are considered part of a glide formation process that turns a high vowel into a semivowel (and part of the syllable onset) when followed by another vowel.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Diphthongs

  • Template:IPA Template:IPA as in roi "king", coi "quiet", croix "cross", doigt "finger", droit "right", foi "faith", loi "law", proie "prey", soie "silk", toit "roof", voie "way", voix "voice"
  • Template:IPA Template:IPA as in groin "muzzle", coin "corner", coing "quince", foin "hay", moins "less", loin "far", point "point", poing "fist", soin "care"
  • Template:IPA Template:IPA as in huit "eight", bruit "noise", buis "boxwood", fruit "fruit", fuite "leak", luire "glow", nuire "harm", nuit "night", pluie "rain", suite "continuation"
  • Template:IPA Template:IPA as in juin "June", suint "ooze (tar)"

Semivowels

Quebec French
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Template:Main In Quebec French, long vowels are generally diphthongized in informal speech when stressed.

Catalan

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Catalan possesses a number of phonetic diphthongs, all of which begin (rising diphthongs) or end (falling diphthongs) in Template:IPA or Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Catalan diphthongs
falling
Template:IPA aigua 'water' Template:IPA taula 'table'
Template:IPA mainada 'children' Template:IPA caurem 'we will fall'
Template:IPA remei 'remedy' Template:IPA peu 'foot'
Template:IPA rei 'king' Template:IPA seu 'his/her'
Template:IPA niu 'nest'
Template:IPA noi 'boy' Template:IPA nou 'new'
Template:IPA jou 'yoke'
Template:IPA avui 'today' Template:IPA duu 'he/she is carrying'
rising
Template:IPA iaia 'grandma' Template:IPA quatre 'four'
Template:IPA veiem 'we see' Template:IPA seqüència 'sequence'
Template:IPA seient 'seat' Template:IPA ungüent 'ointment'
Template:IPA feia 'he/she was doing' Template:IPA qüestió 'question'
Template:IPA pingüí 'penguin'
Template:IPA iode 'iodine' Template:IPA quota 'payment'
Template:IPA iogurt 'yoghurt'

In standard Eastern Catalan, rising diphthongs (that is, those starting with Template:IPA or Template:IPA) are possible only in the following contexts:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

There are also certain instances of compensatory diphthongization in the Majorcan dialect so that Template:IPA ('logs') (in addition to deleting the palatal plosive) develops a compensating palatal glide and surfaces as Template:IPA (and contrasts with the unpluralized Template:IPA). Diphthongization compensates for the loss of the palatal stop (part of Catalan's segment loss compensation). There are other cases where diphthongization compensates for the loss of point of articulation features (property loss compensation) as in Template:IPA ('year') vs Template:IPA ('years').<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> The dialectal distribution of this compensatory diphthongization is almost entirely dependent on the dorsal plosive (whether it is velar or palatal) and the extent of consonant assimilation (whether or not it is extended to palatals).<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Portuguese

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Template:Main The Portuguese diphthongs are formed by the labio-velar approximant Template:IPA and palatal approximant Template:IPA with a vowel,<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> European Portuguese has 14 phonemic diphthongs (10 oral and 4 nasal),<ref name="ReferenceB">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> all of which are falling diphthongs formed by a vowel and a nonsyllabic high vowel. Brazilian Portuguese has roughly the same amount, although the European and non-European dialects have slightly different pronunciations (Template:IPA is a distinctive feature of some southern and central Portuguese dialects, especially that of Lisbon). A Template:IPA onglide after Template:IPA or Template:IPA and before all vowels as in quando Template:IPA ('when') or guarda Template:IPA ('guard') may also form rising diphthongs and triphthongs. Additionally, in casual speech, adjacent heterosyllabic vowels may combine into diphthongs and triphthongs or even sequences of them.<ref name="ReferenceC">Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Falling diphthongs of Portuguese
oral
EP<ref name="ReferenceB"/> BP EP BP
sai Template:IPA mau Template:IPA
sei Template:IPA Template:IPA meu Template:IPA
anéis Template:IPA véu Template:IPA
viu Template:IPA
mói Template:IPA
moita Template:IPA dou Template:IPA
fui Template:IPA
nasal
mãe Template:IPA Template:IPA mão Template:IPA
cem Template:IPA
anões Template:IPA
muita Template:IPA

In addition, phonetic diphthongs are formed in most Brazilian Portuguese dialects by the vocalization of Template:IPA in the syllable coda with words like sol Template:IPA ('sun') and sul Template:IPA ('south') as well as by yodization of vowels preceding Template:IPAslink or its allophone at syllable coda Template:IPA in terms like arroz Template:IPA ('rice'),<ref name="ReferenceC"/> and Template:IPAslink (or Template:IPA) in terms such as paz mundial Template:IPA ('world peace') and dez anos Template:IPA ('ten years').

Spanish

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Phonetically, Spanish has seven falling diphthongs and eight rising diphthongs. In addition, during fast speech, sequences of vowels in hiatus become diphthongs wherein one becomes non-syllabic (unless they are the same vowel, in which case they fuse together) as in poeta Template:IPA ('poet'), almohada Template:IPA ('pillow'), maestro Template:IPA ('teacher') and línea Template:IPA ('line'). The Spanish diphthongs are:<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Spanish diphthongs
falling
Template:IPA aire 'air' Template:IPA pausa 'pause'
Template:IPA rey 'king' Template:IPA neutro 'neutral'
Template:IPA hoy 'today' Template:IPA bou 'seine fishing'
Template:IPA muy 'very'
rising
Template:IPA hacia 'towards' Template:IPA cuadro 'picture'
Template:IPA tierra 'earth' Template:IPA fuego 'fire'
Template:IPA fuimos 'we went'
Template:IPA radio 'radio' Template:IPA cuota 'quota'
Template:IPA viuda 'widow'

Italian

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The existence of true diphthongs in Italian is debated; however, a list is:<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Italian diphthongs
falling
Template:IPA baita 'mountain hut' Template:IPA auto 'car'
Template:IPA potei 'I could' (past tense) Template:IPA pleurite 'pleurisy'
Template:IPA sei 'six' Template:IPA neutro 'neuter'
Template:IPA poi 'later'
Template:IPA voi 'you' (pl.)
Template:IPA lui 'he'
rising
Template:IPA chiave 'key' Template:IPA guado 'ford'
Template:IPA pieno 'full' Template:IPA quercia 'oak'
Template:IPA soffietto 'bellows' Template:IPA quello 'that'
Template:IPA guida 'guide'
Template:IPA chiodo 'nail' Template:IPA quota 'quota'
Template:IPA fiore 'flower' Template:IPA acquoso 'watery'
Template:IPA piuma 'feather'

The second table includes only 'false' diphthongs, composed of a semivowel + a vowel, not two vowels. The situation is more nuanced in the first table: a word such as 'baita' is actually pronounced ['baj.ta] and most speakers would syllabify it that way. A word such as 'voi' would instead be pronounced and syllabified as ['vo.i], yet again without a diphthong.

In general, unstressed Template:IPA in hiatus can turn into glides in more rapid speech (e.g. biennale Template:IPA 'biennial'; coalizione Template:IPA 'coalition') with the process occurring more readily in syllables further from stress.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Romanian

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Template:Main Romanian has two true diphthongs: Template:IPA and Template:IPA. There are, however, a host of other vowel combinations (more than any other major Romance language) which are classified as vowel glides. As a result of their origin (diphthongization of mid vowels under stress), the two true diphthongs appear only in stressed syllables<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> and make morphological alternations with the mid vowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA. To native speakers, they sound very similar to Template:IPA and Template:IPA respectively.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> There are no perfect minimal pairs to contrast Template:IPA and Template:IPA,<ref name="Chiorana" /> and because Template:IPA does not appear in the final syllable of a prosodic word, there are no monosyllabic words with Template:IPA; exceptions might include voal ('veil') and trotuar ('sidewalk'), though Ioana Chițoran argues<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> that these are best treated as containing glide-vowel sequences rather than diphthongs. In addition to these, the semivowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA can be combined (either before, after, or both) with most vowels, while this arguably<ref>See Template:Harvcoltxt for a brief overview of the views regarding Romanian semivowels</ref> forms additional diphthongs and triphthongs, only Template:IPA and Template:IPA can follow an obstruent-liquid cluster such as in broască ('frog') and dreagă ('to mend'),<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref> implying that Template:IPA and Template:IPA are restricted to the syllable boundary and therefore, strictly speaking, do not form diphthongs.

Irish

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All Irish diphthongs are falling.

Scottish Gaelic

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There are 9 diphthongs in Scottish Gaelic. Group 1 occur anywhere (eu is usually Template:IPA before -m, e.g. Seumas). Group 2 are reflexes that occur before -ll, -m, -nn, -bh, -dh, -gh and -mh.

Spellings Examples
1 Template:IPA ia iarr "ask"
Template:IPA ua fuar "cold"
Template:IPA eu beul "mouth"
2 Template:IPA ai saill "grease", cainnt "speech", aimhreit "riot"
Template:IPA ei seinn "sing"
Template:IPA oi, ei, ai loinn "badge", greim "bite", saighdear "soldier"
Template:IPA ui, aoi druim "back", aoibhneas "joy"
Template:IPA a, ea cam "crooked", ceann "head"
Template:IPA o tom "mound", donn "brown"

For more detailed explanations of Gaelic diphthongs see Scottish Gaelic orthography.

Cornish

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The following diphthongs are used in the Standard Written Form of Cornish. Each diphthong is given with its Revived Middle Cornish (RMC) and Revived Late Cornish (RLC) pronunciation.

Graph RMC RLC Example
aw Template:IPA Template:IPA glaw "rain"
ay Template:IPA Template:IPA bay "kiss"
ew Template:IPA blew "hair"
ey Template:IPA Template:IPA bleydh "wolf"
iw Template:IPA Template:IPA liw "colour"
ow Template:IPA lowen "happy"
oy Template:IPA moy "more"
uw Template:IPA Template:IPA duw "god"
yw Template:IPA Template:IPA byw "alive"

Welsh

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Welsh is traditionally divided into Northern and Southern dialects. In the north, some diphthongs may be short or long according to regular vowel length rules but in the south they are always short (see Welsh phonology). Southern dialects tend to simplify diphthongs in speech (e.g. Template:Lang Template:IPA is reduced to Template:IPA).

Grapheme North South Example
ae Template:IPA Template:IPA maen 'stone'
ai Template:IPA gwaith 'work'
au† Template:IPA haul 'sun'
aw Template:IPA Template:IPA mawr 'big'
ei Template:IPA Template:IPA gweithio 'to work'
eu Template:IPA treulio 'spend'
ey teyrn 'tyrant'
ew Template:IPA Template:IPA tew 'fat'
oe Template:IPA Template:IPA moel 'bald'
ou cyffrous 'excited'
oi Template:IPA troi 'turn'
ow Template:IPA Template:IPA brown 'brown'
wy Template:IPA Template:IPA pwyll 'sense'
iw Template:IPA Template:IPA lliw 'colour'
uw Template:IPA duw 'god'
yw llyw 'rudder'
Template:IPA Template:IPA tywydd 'weather'
† The plural ending Template:Lang is reduced to Template:IPA in the north and Template:IPA in the south, e.g. Template:Lang 'battles' is Template:IPA (north) or Template:IPA (south).

Czech

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There are three diphthongs in Czech:

The vowel groups ia, ie, ii, io, and iu in foreign words are not regarded as diphthongs, they are pronounced with Template:IPA between the vowels Template:IPA.

Serbo-Croatian

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may be pronounced as a diphthong, but also as Template:IPA in hiatus or separated by a semivowel, Template:IPA. For example, in the first line of the national anthem of Croatia, Lijepa naša domovina, ije is pronounced as a diphthong, but in the first line of the national anthem of Montenegro, Oj, svijetla majska zoro, ije is pronounced as two syllables.

Some Serbo-Croatian dialects also have uo, as in Template:Lang<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> whereas, in Standard Croatian and Serbian, these words are konj, rod, on.

Uralic languages

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Estonian

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Template:Main

All nine vowels can appear as the first component of an Estonian diphthong, but only Template:IPA occur as the second component.

Common Estonian diphthongs
Template:IPA aed
"fence, garden"		 Template:IPA lai
"wide"		 Template:IPA kaotama
"to lose"		 Template:IPA laud
"table"
Template:IPA teadma
"to know"		 Template:IPA leib
"bread"		 Template:IPA teostus
"accomplishment"		 Template:IPA kiuste
"in spite of"
Template:IPA toa
"room"
(s. possessive)		 Template:IPA koer
"dog"		 Template:IPA toit
"food"
Template:IPA kui
"when, if"
Template:IPA lõa
"tether"
(s. possessive)		 Template:IPA nõel
"needle"		 Template:IPA õige
"right, correct"		 Template:IPA tõotus
"promise"		 Template:IPA lõug
"chin"
Template:IPA päev
"day"		 Template:IPA täis
"full"		 Template:IPA näo
"face" (s. possessive)		 Template:IPA näuguma
"to meow"
Template:IPA söed
"coals"		 Template:IPA köis
"rope"

There are additional diphthongs less commonly used, such as Template:IPA in Euroopa (Europe), Template:IPA in söandama (to dare), and Template:IPA in näuguma (to mew).

Finnish

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Template:Main All Finnish diphthongs are falling. Notably, Finnish has true opening diphthongs (e.g. Template:IPA), which are not very common crosslinguistically compared to centering diphthongs (e.g. Template:IPA in English). Vowel combinations across syllables may in practice be pronounced as diphthongs, when an intervening consonant has elided, as in näön Template:IPA instead of Template:IPA for the genitive of näkö ('sight').

closing
close
opening

Northern Sami

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The diphthong system in Northern Sami varies considerably from one dialect to another. The Western Finnmark dialects distinguish four different qualities of opening diphthongs:

In terms of quantity, Northern Sami shows a three-way contrast between long, short and finally stressed diphthongs. The last are distinguished from long and short diphthongs by a markedly long and stressed second component. Diphthong quantity is not indicated in spelling.<ref name="Aikio 2022" />Template:Rp <ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Semitic languages

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Maltese

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Maltese has seven falling diphthongs, though they may be considered VC sequences phonemically.<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Sino-Tibetan languages

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Mandarin Chinese

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Rising sequences in Mandarin are usually regarded as a combination of a medial semivowel (Template:IPA) plus a vowel, while falling sequences are regarded as one diphthong.

Cantonese

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Cantonese has eleven diphthongs.

Tai–Kadai languages

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Thai

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In addition to vowel nuclei following or preceding Template:IPA and Template:IPA, Thai has three diphthongs:<ref>Template:Harvcoltxt</ref>

Mon-Khmer languages

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Vietnamese

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In addition to vowel nuclei following or preceding Template:IPA and Template:IPA, Vietnamese has three diphthongs:

Khmer

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Khmer language has rich vocalics with an extra distinction of long and short register to the vowels and diphthongs.

Bantu languages

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Zulu

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Zulu has only monophthongs. Y and w are semi-vowels:

Austronesian languages

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Indonesian

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Indonesian has four diphthongs which may be located at the beginning, middle or end of a word.<ref>Minister of Education and Culture Decree No: 50/2015, Jakarta, 2015.</ref> They are:

  • Template:IPA: balairung ('hall'), kedai ('shop'), pandai ('clever')
  • Template:IPA: autodidak ('autodidact'), Taufik (Indonesian given name), kerbau ('buffalo'), limau ('lemon')
  • Template:IPA (or Template:IPA in Indonesian): boikot ('boycott'), amboi (an expression when amazed)
  • Template:IPA: eigendom ('property'), survei ('survey')

See also

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References

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Template:Reflist

Bibliography

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Template:Authority control

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