1880s
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The 1880s (pronounced "eighteen-eighties") was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1880, and ended on December 31, 1889.
The period was characterized in general by economic growth and prosperity in many parts of the world, especially Europe and the Americas, with the emergence of modern cities signified by the foundation of many long-lived corporations, franchises, and brands and the introduction of the skyscraper. The decade was a part of the Gilded Age (1874–1907) in the United States, the Victorian Era in the British Empire and the Belle Époque in France. It also occurred at the height of the Second Industrial Revolution and saw numerous developments in science and a sudden proliferation of electrical technologies, particularly in mass transit and telecommunications.
The last living person from this decade, María Capovilla, died in 2006. Template:Decadebox
Politics and wars
[edit]Wars
[edit]- Aceh War (1873–1904)
- War of the Pacific (1879–1884)
- First Boer War (1880–1881)
- Mahdist War (1881–1899)
- 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War (1882)
- 13 September 1882 — British troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate.
- Sino-French War (1884–1885)
- Serbo-Bulgarian War (1885)
Internal conflicts
[edit]- American Indian Wars (Intermittently from 1622 to 1918)
- 20 July 1881 — Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his fugitive people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana.
- Frequent lynchings of African Americans in Southern United States during the years 1880–1890
- Urabi Revolt (1879-1882)
Colonization
[edit]- France colonizes Indochina (1883)
- German colonization (1887)
- Increasing colonial interest and conquest in Africa leads representatives from Britain, France, Portugal, Germany, Belgium, Italy and Spain to divide Africa into regions of colonial influence at the Berlin Conference. This would be followed over the next few decades by conquest of almost the entirety of the remaining uncolonised parts of the continent, broadly along the lines determined. (1889)
Prominent political events
[edit]- 3 August 1881: The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed, officially ending the war between the Boers and Britain.
- 3 May 1882: The Chinese Exclusion Act was signed into law by President Chester A. Arthur.
- 20 May 1882: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy form The Triple Alliance as a defensive military alliance<ref>Grenville, John; Wasserstein, Bernard, eds. (2013). The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts. Routledge. p. 38. ISBN 9780415141253. Retrieved 2 March 2014.</ref>
- 1884: International Meridian Conference in Washington D.C., held to determine the Prime Meridian of the world.
- 1884–1885: Berlin Conference, when the western powers divided Africa.
- The United States had five Presidents during the decade, the most since the 1840s. They were Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison.
- 20-22 June 1887: The Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria was celebrated marking Queen Victoria's 50 year reign.
- 13 May 1888: Brazil abolishes slavery, the last country in the western hemisphere to do so.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Disasters
[edit]- May to August, 1883: Krakatoa, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted cataclysmically; 36,000 people were killed, the majority being killed by the resulting tsunami.
- September 1887: The Yellow river flooded and killed about 900,000 people.
- 11 March to 14 March, 1888: The Great Blizzard of 1888 kills 400 in the eastern United States.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- May 1889: The Johnstown Flood occurred after the failure of the dam due to excessive rainfall in Pennsylvania. Nurse Clara Barton notably helped in the relief effort.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Assassinations and attempts
[edit]Template:Expand section Prominent assassinations, targeted killings, and assassination attempts include:
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- 1882 - Guglielmo Oberdan fails to assassinate Austria-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph and is executed<ref>Salata 1932, p. 290</ref>
Science and technology
[edit]Technology
[edit]- 1880: Oliver Heaviside of Camden Town, London, England receives a patent for the coaxial cable.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In 1887, Heaviside introduced the concept of loading coils. In the 1890s, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin would both create the loading coils and receive a patent of them, failing to credit Heaviside's work.<ref name="mpoweruk.com">Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1880–1882: Development and commercial production of electric lighting was underway. Thomas Edison of Milan, Ohio, established Edison Illuminating Company on December 17, 1880. Based at New York City, it was the pioneer company of the electrical power industry. Edison's system was based on creating a central power plant equipped with electrical generators. Copper electrical wires would then connect the station with other buildings, allowing for electric power distribution.<ref name="coned.com">Template:Cite web</ref> Pearl Street Station was the first central power plant in the United States. It was located at 255–257 Pearl Street in Manhattan on a site measuring 50 by 100 feet,<ref name=Josephson>"Edison" by Matthew Josephson. McGraw Hill, New York, 1959, pg. 255. Template:OCLC, Template:ISBN</ref> just south of Fulton Street. It began with one direct current generator, and it started generating electricity on September 4, 1882, serving an initial load of 400 lamps at 85 customers. By 1884, Pearl Street Station was serving 508 customers with 10,164 lamps.<ref name=Josephson/>
- 1880–1886: Charles F. Brush of Euclid, Ohio, and Brush Electric Light Company installed carbon arc lights along Broadway, New York City. A small generating station was established at Manhattan's 25th Street. The electric arc lights went into regular service on December 20, 1880. The new Brooklyn Bridge of 1883 had seventy arc lamps installed in it. By 1886, there was a reported number of 1,500 arc lights installed in Manhattan.<ref name="coned.com"/>
- 1880–1883: James Wimshurst of Poplar, London, England invents the Wimshurst Machine.
- 1881–1885: Stefan Drzewiecki of Podolia, Russian Empire finishes his submarine-building project (which had begun in 1879). The crafts were constructed at Nevskiy Shipbuilding and Machinery works at Saint Petersburg. Altogether, 50 units were delivered to the Ministry of War. They were reportedly deployed as part of the defense of Kronstadt and Sevastopol. In 1885, the submarines were transferred to the Imperial Russian Navy. They were soon declared "ineffective" and discarded. By 1887, Drzewiecki was designing submarines for the French Third Republic.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- 1881–1883: John Philip Holland of Liscannor, County Clare, Ireland<ref>Source: Lecture by Pat Sweeney, Maritime Institute of Ireland 16 January 2009: His father was a member of the Coastguard and occupied a coastguard cottage. There were no coastguard cottages or station in Liscannor.</ref> builds the Fenian Ram submarine for the Fenian Brotherhood. During extensive trials, Holland made numerous dives and test-fired the gun using dummy projectiles. However, due to funding disputes within the Irish Republican Brotherhood and disagreement over payments from the IRB to Holland, the IRB stole Fenian Ram and the Holland III prototype in November 1883.<ref name="usni_nautilus">Davies, R. Nautilus: The Story of Man Under the Sea. Naval Institute Press. 1995. Template:ISBN.</ref>
- 1882: William Edward Ayrton of London, England and John Perry of Garvagh, County Londonderry, Ireland build an electric tricycle. It reportedly had a range of 10 to 25 miles, powered by a lead acid battery. A significant innovation of the vehicle was its use of electric lights, here playing the role of headlamps.<ref name="mpoweruk.com"/><ref>Template:Cite bookTemplate:Dead link</ref>
- 1882: James Atkinson of Hampstead, London, England invented the Atkinson cycle engine. By use of variable engine strokes from a complex crankshaft, Atkinson was able to increase the efficiency of his engine, at the cost of some power, over traditional Otto-cycle engines.<ref name="Cummins">Template:Cite book</ref>
- 1882: Schuyler Wheeler of Massachusetts invented the two-blade electric fan. Henry W. Seely of New York invented the electric safety iron. Both were arguably among the earliest small domestic electrical appliances to appear.<ref name="mpoweruk.com"/>
- 1882–1883: John Hopkinson of Manchester, England patents the three-phase electric power system in 1882. In 1883 Hopkinson showed mathematically that it was possible to connect two alternating current dynamos in parallel — a problem that had long bedeviled electrical engineers.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1883: Charles Fritts, an American inventor, creates the first working solar cell. The energy conversion efficiency of these early devices was less than 1%. Denounced as a fraud in the US for "generating power without consuming matter, thus violating the laws of physics".<ref name="mpoweruk.com"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1883–1885: Josiah H. L. Tuck, an American inventor, works in his own submarine designs. His 1883 model was created in Delameter Iron Works. It was 30-feet long, "all-electric and had vertical and horizontal propellers clutched to the same shaft, with a 20-feet breathing pipe and an airlock for a diver." His 1885 model, called the "Peacemaker", was larger. It used "a caustic soda patent boiler to power a 14-HP Westinghouse steam engine". She managed a number of short trips within the New York Harbor area.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Peacemaker had a submerged endurance of 5 hours. Tuck did not benefit from his achievement. His family feared that the inventor was squandering his fortune on the Peacemaker. They had him committed to an insane asylum by the end of the decade.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- 1883–1886: John Joseph Montgomery of Yuba City, California, starts his attempts at early flight. In 1884, using a glider designed and built in 1883, Montgomery made the "first heavier-than-air human-carrying aircraft to achieve controlled piloted flight" in the Western Hemisphere. This glider had a curved parabolic wing surface. He reportedly made a glide of "considerable length" from Otay Mesa, San Diego, California, his first successful flight and arguably the first successful one in the United States. In 1884–1885, Montgomery tested a second monoplane glider with flat wings. The innovation in design was "hinged surfaces at the rear of the wings to maintain lateral balance". These were early forms of Aileron. After experimentation with a water tank and smoke chamber to understand the nature of flow over surfaces, in 1886, Montgomery designed a third glider with fully rotating wings as pitcherons. He then turned to theoretic research towards the development of a manuscript "Soaring Flight" in 1896.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- 1884–1885: On August 9, 1884, La France, a French Army airship, makes its maiden flight. Launched by Charles Renard and Arthur Constantin Krebs. Krebs piloted the first fully controlled free-flight with the La France. The Template:Convert long, Template:Convert airship, electric-powered with a 435 kg battery<ref>Winter, Lumen & Degner, Glenn, Minute Epics of Flight, New York, Grosset & Dunlap, 1933, pgs. 49–50</ref> completed a flight that covered Template:Convert in 23 minutes. It was the first full round trip flight<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> with a landing on the starting point. On its seven flights in 1884 and 1885<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> the La France dirigible returned five times to its starting point. "La France was the first airship that could return to its starting point in a light wind. It was Template:Convert long, its maximum diameter was Template:Convert, and it had a capacity of 66,000 cubic feet (1,869 cubic meters)." Its battery-powered motor "produced 7.5 horsepower (5.6 kilowatts). This motor was later replaced with one that produced 8.5 horsepower (6.3 kilowatts)."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1884: Paul Gottlieb Nipkow of Lębork, Kingdom of Prussia, German Empire invents the Nipkow disk, an image scanning device. It was the basis of his patent method of translating visual images to electronic impulses, transmit said impulses to another device and successfully reassemble the impulses to visual images. Nipkow used a selenium photoelectric cell.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Nipkow proposed and patented the first "near-practicable" electromechanical television system in 1884. Although he never built a working model of the system, Nipkow's spinning disk design became a common television image rasterizer used up to 1939.<ref>George Shiers and May Shiers, Early Television: A Bibliographic Guide to 1940, Taylor & Francis, 1997, p. 13, 22. Template:ISBN.</ref>
- 1884: Alexander Mozhaysky of Kotka, Grand Duchy of Finland, Russian Empire makes the second known "powered, assisted take off of a heavier-than-air craft carrying an operator". His steam-powered monoplane took off at Krasnoye Selo, near Saint Petersburg, making a hop and "covering between 65 and 100 feet". The monoplane had a failed landing, with one of its wings destroyed and serious damages. It was never rebuilt. Later Soviet propaganda would overstate Mozhaysky's accomplishment while downplaying the failed landing. The Grand Soviet Encyclopedia called this "the first true flight of a heavier-than-air machine in history".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1884–1885: Ganz Company engineers Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri had determined that open-core devices were impracticable, as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage. In their joint patent application for the "Z.B.D." transformers, they described the design of two with no poles: the "closed-core" and the "shell-core" transformers. In the closed-core type, the primary and secondary windings were wound around a closed iron ring; in the shell type, the windings were passed through the iron core. In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the iron core, with no intentional path through air. When employed in electric distribution systems, this revolutionary design concept would finally make it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes, businesses and public spaces.<ref name="Bláthy_HPO">Bláthy, Ottó Titusz (1860 – 1939) Template:Webarchive, Hungarian Patent Office, January 29, 2004.</ref><ref>Zipernowsky, K., M. Déri and O. T. Bláthy, Induction Coil, Patent No. 352,105, U.S. Patent Office, November 2, 1886, retrieved July 8, 2009.</ref> Bláthy had suggested the use of closed-cores, Zipernowsky the use of shunt connections, and Déri had performed the experiments.<ref name="Smil">Smil, Vaclav, Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867—1914 and Their Lasting Impact, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 71.</ref> Electrical and electronic systems the world over continue to rely on the principles of the original Z.B.D. transformers. The inventors also popularized the word "transformer" to describe a device for altering the EMF of an electric current,<ref name="Bláthy_HPO"/><ref>Nagy, Árpád Zoltán, "Lecture to Mark the 100th Anniversary of the Discovery of the Electron in 1897" (preliminary text) Template:Webarchive, Budapest October 11, 1996, retrieved July 9, 2009.</ref> although the term had already been in use by 1882.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Hospitalier, Édouard, 1882, The Modern Applications of Electricity, Translated and Enlarged by Julius Maier. New York, D. Appleton & Co., p. 103.</ref>
- 1884–1885: John Philip Holland and Edmund Zalinski, having formed the "Nautilus Submarine Boat Company", start working on a new submarine. The so-called "Zalinsky boat" was constructed in Hendrick's Reef (former Fort Lafayette), Bay Ridge in (ray) or (rayacus the 3rd) New York City borough of Brooklyn. "The new, cigar-shaped submarine was 50 feet long with a maximum beam of eight feet. To save money, the hull was largely of wood, framed with iron hoops, and again, a Brayton-cycle engine provided motive power." The project was plagued by a "shoestring budget" and Zalinski mostly rejecting Holland's ideas on improvements. The submarine was ready for launching in September, 1885. "During the launching itself, a section of the ways collapsed under the weight of the boat, dashing the hull against some pilings and staving in the bottom. Although the submarine was repaired and eventually carried out several trial runs in lower New York Harbor, by the end of 1886 the Nautilus Submarine Boat Company was no more, and the salvageable remnants of the Zalinski Boat were sold to reimburse the disappointed investors." Holland would not create another submarine to 1893.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1885: Galileo Ferraris of Livorno Piemonte, Kingdom of Italy reaches the concept of a rotating magnetic field. He applied it to a new motor. "Ferraris devised a motor using electromagnets at right angles and powered by alternating currents that were 90° out of phase, thus producing a revolving magnetic field. The motor, the direction of which could be reversed by reversing its polarity, proved the solution to the last remaining problem in alternating-current motors. The principle made possible the development of the asynchronous, self-starting electric motor that is still used today. Believing that the scientific and intellectual values of new developments far outstripped material values, Ferraris deliberately did not patent his invention; on the contrary, he demonstrated it freely in his own laboratory to all comers." He published his findings in 1888. By then, Nikola Tesla had independently reached the same concept and was seeking a patent.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1885: Nikolay Bernardos and Karol Olszewski of Broniszów were granted a patent for their Electrogefest, an "electric arc welder with a carbon electrode". Introducing a method of carbon arc welding, they also became the "inventors of modern welding apparatus".<ref name="mpoweruk.com"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1885–1888: Karl Benz of Karlsruhe, Baden, German Empire introduces the Benz Patent Motorwagen, widely regarded as the first automobile.<ref>Ralph Stein (1967). The Automobile Book. Paul Hamlyn Ltd."</ref> It featured wire wheels (unlike carriages' wooden ones)<ref>G.N. Georgano Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886–1930. (London: Grange-Universal, 1985)</ref> with a four-stroke engine of his own design between the rear wheels, with a very advanced coil ignition<ref name="Georgano">G.N. Georgano</ref> and evaporative cooling rather than a radiator.<ref name="Georgano"/> The Motorwagen was patented on January 29, 1886, as DRP-37435: "automobile fueled by gas".<ref>DRP's patent No. 37435 Template:Webarchive (PDF, 561 kB, German) was filed January 29, 1886, and granted November 2, 1886, thus taking effect January 29.</ref> The 1885 version was difficult to control, leading to a collision with a wall during a public demonstration. The first successful tests on public roads were carried out in the early summer of 1886. The next year Benz created the Motorwagen Model 2 which had several modifications, and in 1887, the definitive Model 3 with wooden wheels was introduced, showing at the Paris Expo the same year.<ref name="Georgano"/> Benz began to sell the vehicle (advertising it as the Benz Patent Motorwagen) in the late summer of 1888, making it the first commercially available automobile in history.<ref name="Georgano"/>
- 1885–1887: William Stanley, Jr. of Brooklyn, New York, an employee of George Westinghouse, creates an improved transformer. Westinghouse had bought the patents of Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs on the subject, and had purchased an option on the designs of Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri. He entrusted engineer Stanley with the building of a device for commercial use.<ref name="Skrabec">Template:Cite book</ref> Stanley's first patented design was for induction coils with single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the EMF present in the secondary winding. This design was first used commercially in 1886.<ref name="Coltman">Template:Cite book</ref> But Westinghouse soon had his team working on a design whose core comprised a stack of thin "E-shaped" iron plates, separated individually or in pairs by thin sheets of paper or other insulating material. Prewound copper coils could then be slid into place, and straight iron plates laid in to create a closed magnetic circuit. Westinghouse applied for a patent for the new design in December 1886; it was granted in July 1887.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Westinghouse, G. Jr., Electrical Converter, Patent No. 366362, United States Patent Office, 1887.</ref>
- 1885–1889: Claude Goubet, a French inventor, builds two small electric submarines.<ref name="submarine-history.com">Template:Cite web</ref> The first Goubet model was 16-feet long and weighed 2 tons. "She used accumulators (storage batteries which operated an Edison-type dynamo." While among the earliest submarines to successfully make use of electric power, she proved to have a severe flaw. She could not stay at a stable depth, set by the operator. The improved Goubet II was introduced in 1889. This version could transport a 2-man crew and had "an attractive interior". More stable than her predecessor, though still unable to stay at a set depth.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- 1885–1887: Thorsten Nordenfelt of Örby, Uppsala Municipality, Sweden produces a series of steam powered submarines. The first was the Nordenfelt I, a 56 tonne, 19.5 metre long vessel similar to George Garrett's ill-fated Resurgam (1879), with a range of 240 kilometres and armed with a single torpedo and a 25.4 mm machine gun. It was manufactured by Bolinders in Stockholm in 1884–1885. Like the Resurgam, it operated on the surface using a 100 HP steam engine with a maximum speed of 9 kn, then it shut down its engine to dive. She was purchased by the Hellenic Navy and was delivered to Salamis Naval Base in 1886. Following the acceptance tests, she was never used again by the Hellenic Navy and was scrapped in 1901.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Nordenfelt then built the Nordenfelt II (Abdülhamid) in 1886 and Nordenfelt III (Abdülmecid) in 1887, a pair of 30 metre long submarines with twin torpedo tubes, for the Ottoman Navy. Abdülhamid became the first submarine in history to fire a torpedo while submerged under water.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Nordenfelts had several faults. "It took as long as twelve hours to generate enough steam for submerged operations and about thirty minutes to dive. Once underwater, sudden changes in speed or direction triggered—in the words of a U.S. Navy intelligence report—"dangerous and eccentric movements." ...However, good public relations overcame bad design: Nordenfeldt always demonstrated his boats before a stellar crowd of crowned heads, and Nordenfeldt's submarines were regarded as the world standard."<ref name="submarine-history.com" />
- 1886–1887: Carl Gassner of Mainz, German Empire receives a patent for a zinc–carbon battery, among the earliest examples of dry cell batteries. Originally patented in the German Empire, Gassner also received patents from Austria-Hungary, Belgium, the French Third Republic, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (all in 1886) and the United States (in 1887). Consumer dry cells would first appear in the 1890s.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 1887, Wilhelm Hellesen of Kalundborg, Denmark patented his own zinc–carbon battery. Within the year, Hellesen and V. Ludvigsen founded a factory in Frederiksberg, producing their batteries.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1886: Charles Martin Hall of Thompson Township, Geauga County, Ohio, and Paul Héroult of Thury-Harcourt, Normandy independently discover the same inexpensive method for producing aluminium, which became the first metal to attain widespread use since the prehistoric discovery of iron. The basic invention involves passing an electric current through a bath of alumina dissolved in cryolite, which results in a puddle of aluminum forming in the bottom of the retort. It has come to be known as the Hall-Héroult process.<ref>Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology", p. 933. Second Revised Edition, Doubleday, 1982"</ref> Often overlooked is that Hall did not work alone. His research partner was Julia Brainerd Hall, an older sister. She had studied chemistry at Oberlin College, helped with the experiments, took laboratory notes and gave business advice to Charles.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- 1886–1890: Herbert Akroyd Stuart of Halifax Yorkshire, England receives his first patent on a prototype of the hot bulb engine. His research culminated in an 1890 patent for a compression ignition engine. Production started in 1891 by Richard Hornsby & Sons of Grantham, Lincolnshire, England under the title Hornsby Akroyd Patent Oil Engine under licence.<ref name=ak>Herbert Akroyd Stuart, Improvements in Engines Operated by the Explosion of Mixtures of Combustible Vapour or Gas and Air, British Patent No 7146, Mai 1890</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Stuart's oil engine design was simple, reliable and economical. It had a comparatively low compression ratio, so that the temperature of the air compressed in the combustion chamber at the end of the compression stroke was not high enough to initiate combustion. Combustion instead took place in a separated combustion chamber, the "vaporizer" (also called the "hot bulb") mounted on the cylinder head, into which fuel was sprayed. It was connected to the cylinder by a narrow passage and was heated either by the cylinder's coolant or by exhaust gases while running; an external flame such as a blowtorch was used for starting. Self-ignition occurred from contact between the fuel-air mixture and the hot walls of the vaporizer.<ref name=mcneil>Template:Cite book</ref>
- 1887: William Thomson (later Baron Kelvin) of Belfast, Ireland introduces the multicellular voltmeter. The electrical supply industry needed instruments capable of measuring high voltages. Thomson's voltmeter could measure up to 20,000 volts. It could measure both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) flows.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> They went into production in 1888, being the first electrostatic voltmeters.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1887: Charles Vernon Boys of Wing, Rutland, England<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> introduces a method of using fused quartz fibers to measure "delicate forces". Boys was a physics demonstrator at the Royal College of Science in South Kensington, but was contacting private experiments on the effects of delicate forces on objects. It was already known that hanging an object from a thread could demonstrate the effects of such weak influences. Said thread had to be "thin, strong and elastic". Finding the best fibers available at the time insufficient for his experiments, Boys set out to create a better fiber. He tried making glass from a variety of minerals. The best results came from natural quartz. He created fibers both extremely thin and highly durable. He used them to create the "radiomicrometer", a device sensitive enough to detect the heat of a single candle from a distance of almost 2 miles. By March 26, 1887, Boys was reporting his results to the Physical Society of London.<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Dead link</ref>
- 1887–1888: Augustus Desiré Waller of Paris recorded the human electrocardiogram with surface electrodes. He was employed at the time as a lecturer in physiology at St Mary's Hospital in Paddington, London, England.<ref name=Waller_1887>Template:Cite journal</ref> In May, 1887, Waller demonstrated his method to many physiologists. In 1888, Waller demonstrated that the contraction of the heart started at the apex of the heart and ended at the base of the heart. Willem Einthoven was among those who took interest in the new method. He would end up improving it in the 1900s.<ref>[[[:Template:Cite journal]]</ref>
- 1887–1889: The Serbian-American engineer Nikola Tesla files patents on a rotating magnetic field based alternating current induction motor and related polyphase AC transmission systems. The patents are licensed by Westinghouse Electric although technical problems and a shortage of cash at the company meant a complete system would not be rolled out until 1893.<ref>Quentin R. Skrabec, George Westinghouse: Gentle Genius, Algora Publishing – 2007, page 127</ref>
- 1887–1890: Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti of Liverpool, England is hired by the London Electric Supply Corporation to design the Deptford Power Station. Ferranti designed the building, as well as the electrical systems for both generating and distributing alternating current (AC). Among the innovations included in the Station was "the use of 10,000-volt high-tension cable", successfully tested for safety. On its completion in October 1890 it was the first truly modern power station, supplying high-voltage AC power.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> "Ferranti pioneered the use of Alternating Current for the distribution of electrical power in Europe authoring 176 patents on the alternator, high-tension cables, insulation, circuit breakers, transformers and turbines."<ref name="mpoweruk.com" />
- 1888: Heinrich Hertz of Hamburg, a city-state of the German Empire, successfully transmits and receives radio waves. He was employed at the time by the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. Attempting to experimentally prove James Clerk Maxwell' "A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field" (1864), Hertz "generated electric waves using an electric circuit". Then he detected said waves "with another similar circuit some distance away". Hertz succeeded in proving the existence of electromagnetic waves. But in doing so, he had built basic transmitter and receiver devices. Hertz took this work no further, did not exploit it commercially, and famously did not consider it useful. But it was an important step in the invention of radio.<ref name="mpoweruk.com" /><ref name="katz">Eugenii Katz, "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Template:Webarchive". Biographies of Famous Electrochemists and Physicists Contributed to Understanding of Electricity, Biosensors & Bioelectronics.</ref>
- 1888–1890: Isaac Peral of Cartagena, Spain launches his pioneering submarine on September 8, 1888. Created for the Spanish Navy, el Peral was "roughly 71 feet long, with a 9-foot beam and a height of almost 9 feet amidships, with one horizontal and two small vertical propellers, Peral's "cigar," as the workers called it, ... had a periscope, a chemical system to oxygenate the air for a crew of six, a speedometer, spotlights, and a launcher at the bow capable of firing three torpedoes. Its two 30-horsepower electrical motors, powered by 613 batteries, gave it a theoretical range of 396 nautical miles and a maximum speed of 10.9 knots an hour at the surface." It underwent a series of trials in 1889 and 1890, all in the Bay of Cádiz. On June 7, 1890, it "successfully spent an hour submerged at a depth of 10 meters, following a set course of three and a half miles". He was celebrated by the public and honored by Maria Christina of Austria, Queen Regent of Spain. But Navy officials ultimately declared the submarine a "useless curiosity", scrapping the project.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1888–1890: Gustave Zédé and Arthur Constantin Krebs launch the Gymnote, a 60-foot submarine for the French Navy. "It was driven by a 55 horse power electric motor, originally powered by 564 Lalande-Chaperon alkaline cells by Coumelin, Desmazures et Baillache with a total capacity of 400 Amphours weighing 11 tons and delivering a maximum current of 166 Amps."<ref name="mpoweruk.com"/> She was launched on 24 September 1888 and would stay in service to 1908.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Gymnote underwent various trials to 1890, successful enough for the Navy to start building two "real fighting submarines", considerably larger. Several of the trials were intended to established tactical methods of using submarines in warfare. Several weapons were tested until it was decided that the Whitehead torpedoes were ideal for the job. The Gymnote proved effective in breaking blockades and surface ships had trouble spotting it. She was able to withstand explosions of up to 220 pounds of guncotton in a distance of 75 yards from its body. Shells of quick-firing guns, fired at short range, would explode in the water before hitting it. At long-range everything fired at the submarine, ended up ricocheting. The submarine proved "blind" when submerged, establishing the need of a periscope.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- 1889–1891: Almon Brown Strowger of Penfield, New York, files a patent for the stepping switch on March 12, 1889. Issued on March 10, 1891, it enabled automatic telephone exchanges.<ref name="strowger.com">Template:Cite web</ref> Since 1878, telephone communications were handled by telephone switchboards, staffed by telephone operators. Operators were not only responsible for connecting, monitoring and disconnecting calls. They were expected to provide "emotional support, emergency information, local news and gossip, business tips", etc.<ref name="Google Books">Template:Cite book</ref> Strowger had reportedly felt the negative side of this development, while working as an undertaker in Kansas City. The local operator happened to be the wife of a rival undertaker. Whenever someone asked to be put through to an undertaker, the operator would connect them to her husband. Strowger was frustrated at losing customers to this unfair competition. He created his device explicitly to bypass the need of an operator. His system "required users to tap out the number they wanted on three keys to call other users directly. The system worked with reasonable accuracy when the subscribers operated their push buttons correctly and remembered to press the release button after a conversation was finished, but there was no provision against a subscriber being connected to a busy line."<ref name="mpoweruk.com" /><ref name="strowger.com" /> Strowger would found the Strowger Automatic Telephone Exchange in 1891.<ref name="strowger.com" />
- 1889: Elihu Thomson of Manchester, England, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland creates a motor-driven Wattmeter.<ref name="ReferenceA">. Woodbank Communications Ltd.'s Electropaedia: "History of Batteries (and other things)" Template:Webarchive</ref>
- 1889: Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky of Gatchina, Russian Empire created the first squirrel-cage induction motor. He was at the time working for AEG.<ref name="mpoweruk.com"/>
- Development and commercial production of gasoline-powered automobiles were undertaken by Karl Benz, Gottlieb Daimler and Maybach
- The first commercial production and sales of phonographs and phonograph recordings occurred.
- Steel frame construction of "sky-scrapers" happened for the first time.
- February 16, 1880: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers was founded in New York City.
- Construction began on the Panama Canal by the French. This was the first attempt to build the Canal; it would end in failure.
- Lewis Ticehurst invented the drinking straw.
- 1884: Smokeless powder was broughtTemplate:Where from France.
- 1885: Thomas Edison invents the first ever movie in Menlo Park, New Jersey.
- 1886: Earliest commercial automobile is invented.
- 1887: As the Prohibition movement gained nationwide prevalence, a "liquor-free" drink was brewed, known now as Coca-Cola.
- 1888: Infrastructure reform movements begin when many cities are devastated by the Great Blizzard of '88.
Science
[edit]- Heinrich Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect.
- The Michelson–Morley experiment was undertaken, which suggested that the speed of light is invariant.
- The James–Lange theory of emotion was produced.
- William James publishes numerous articles on human thought, leading to the 1890 publication of his The Principles of Psychology.
Society
[edit]- The beginning of the Italian diaspora<ref>Pozzetta, George E., Bruno Ramirez, and Robert F. Harney. The Italian Diaspora: Migration across the Globe. Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Ontario, 1992.</ref>
- About 600,000 Swedes emigrated to America.
- Chinese, Scandinavians and Irish immigrants laid Template:Convert of Railroad tracks in America.
- Syrian Canadians started immigrating to the Americas.
Popular culture
[edit]Literature and arts
[edit]- Friedrich Nietzsche published Thus Spoke Zarathustra.
- Mark Twain published Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
- Carlo Collodi published The Adventures of Pinocchio.
- Fyodor Dostoevsky wrote The Brothers Karamazov.
- Edward Bellamy published Looking Backward.
- Robert Louis Stevenson published Treasure Island and The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde.
- Arthur Conan Doyle published his first Sherlock Holmes tale.
- African-American music and ragtime rise to popularity in the later part of the decade.
- Guy de Maupassant wrote The Necklace.
- Henrik Ibsen published Ghosts
- Vincent van Gogh painted Irises<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and The Starry Night<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- Moulin Rouge opened as Jardin de Paris<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Architecture
[edit]
- Home Insurance Building, the first skyscraper in history, becomes the tallest man-made structure ever built after it officially opened in 1885.
- March 31, 1889 – The Eiffel Tower is inaugurated (opens May 6). At 300 m, its height exceeds the previous tallest structure in the world by 130 m.
Sports
[edit]In 1882 Kanō Jigorō creates Judo<ref>Kano, Jigoro | Portraits of Modern Japanese Historical Figures, su ndl.go.jp. URL consultato il 2 ottobre 2020.</ref>
Music
[edit]The Romantic style, most prominent in Europe, emphasised strong melodies, beautiful harmony, and the unique vision of the artist. Loud, extreme contrasts in dynamics and accentuated rhythmic patterns were featured in the music of the time. The influence of Ludwig van Beethoven was strong, especially in the German-language area. Many of the artists involved in the Romantic music movement were disappointed with the effects of the Industrial Revolution and urbanisation, and drew influence from nature, the countryside, commoners, and old myths and legends. Nevertheless, music was seen as separate from politics, an ethereal sphere dominated by sublime expressions of the artists' deepest, primal sentiments. It was seen as something almost divine, with a unique ability to portray passionate emotions like love directly to the listener. Romantic orchestral pieces tended to be quite long and required more players than before, with symphonies regularly taking a whole hour to perform completely.
Within the Russian Empire, the influence of the Five, or "the Mighty Handful" and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky had been crucial in developing a new national understanding of music.
Fashion
[edit]Template:See also Template:Expand section
Other
[edit]
- 8 May 1886 — Coca-Cola was invented.
- 1888 — Whitechapel murders by the infamous Jack the Ripper.
People
[edit]Politics
[edit]- Eugène Borel, Director Universal Postal Union
- Louis Curchod, Director International Telecommunication Union
- Henri Morel, Secretary-general World Intellectual Property Organization
- Gustave Moynier, President International Committee of the Red Cross
- Heinrich Wild, President World Meteorological Organization
- Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, President of Turkey
Sports Figures
[edit]Famous and infamous personalities
[edit]- Wyatt Earp, lawman
- Morgan Earp, lawman
- Virgil Earp, lawman
- Doc Holliday, outlaw and gunfighter, friend of Wyatt Earp
- Tom McLaury, Wild West, outlaw, cowboy, cattle rustler
- Frank McLaury, ranch hand, outlaw
- Billy Claiborne, outlaw Cowboy, gunfighter
- Curly Bill Brocius, outlaw Cowboy, rustler
- Buffalo Bill, scout, bison and buffalo hunter, founder of Buffalo Bill's Wild West
- Billy the Kid, a.k.a. Henry McCarty, Wild West, outlaw, murderer
- Ignacy Hryniewiecki, assassin of Tsar Alexander II of Russia
- Bob Ford, Wild West, outlaw, murderer of Jesse James
See also
[edit]References
[edit]Template:Commons category Template:Reflist
Further reading
[edit]- The American Annual Cyclopedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1881
- The American Annual Cyclopedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1882
- The American Annual Cyclopedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1884
- The American Annual Cyclopedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1887
- The American Annual Cyclopedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1888
- Prices and Wages by Decade, 1880–1889 – Guide published by the University of Missouri Library points to pages in digital libraries (freely available online) that show average prices and wages by occupation, race, sex, and more.