Editing Western Pennsylvania English

{{short description|Dialect of American English}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Western Pennsylvania English
| altname          = Pittsburgh English, Pittsburghese
| region           = [[Western Pennsylvania]]
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3             = [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4             = [[North Sea Germanic|Ingvaeonic]]
| fam5             = [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo–Frisian]]
| fam6             = [[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
| fam7             = [[English language|English]]
| fam8             = [[North American English]]
| fam9             = [[American English]]
| ancestor         = [[Old English]]
| ancestor2        = [[Middle English]]
| ancestor3        = [[Early Modern English]]
| nation           = 
| script           = [[English alphabet]]
| isoexception     = dialect
| glotto           = west2919
| map              = Appalachian dialect region of United States.png
| mapcaption       = [[Appalachia]] (in white) overlaid with dialect regions defined by the 2006 [[Atlas of North American English|ANAE]]. Western Pennsylvania English can be seen in orange.
}}
[[File:Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (8483665838).jpg|thumb|right|250px|A sign using "Dahntahn" to mean "Downtown" in [[Downtown Pittsburgh]]]]

'''Western Pennsylvania English''', known more narrowly as '''Pittsburgh English''' or popularly as '''Pittsburghese''', is a dialect of [[American English]] native primarily to the [[Western Pennsylvania|western half of Pennsylvania]], centered on the city of [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], but potentially appearing in some speakers as far north as [[Erie County, Pennsylvania|Erie County]], as far east as [[Harrisburg]], as far south as [[Clarksburg micropolitan area|Clarksburg, West Virginia]], and as far west as [[Youngstown, Ohio]].{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=130, 133, 264}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/speak/seatosea/americanvarieties/pittsburghese/|title=Do You Speak American . Sea to Shining Sea . American Varieties . Pittsburghese - PBS|website=[[PBS]]}}</ref> Commonly associated with the [[working class]] of Pittsburgh, users of the dialect are colloquially known as "Yinzers".

==Overview==
[[Scotch-Irish American|Scots-Irish]], [[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]], [[Polish people|Polish]],<ref name="DARE1">{{cite book|editor-last=Cassidy|editor-first=F. G.|title=Dictionary of American Regional English, Vol. I: A-C|year=1985|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-674-20511-6}}</ref> [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]]<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.ukrweekly.com/old/archive/2000/020012.shtml | title = Demographic, social, cultural characteristics of persons of Ukrainian ancestry in Chicago | work = [[The Ukrainian Weekly]] No. 2, Vol. LXVIII | date = January 9, 2000 | access-date = May 16, 2008 | last = Wolowyna | first = Oleh | archive-date = September 6, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080906191606/http://www.ukrweekly.com/old/archive/2000/020012.shtml | url-status = dead }} (based on 1990 US Census)</ref> and [[Croats|Croatian]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KxW_BKtCjqkC&q=croatian+descendants+in+pittsburgh&pg=PT277|title=Transforming America: Perspectives on U.S. Immigration [3 volumes]: Perspectives on U.S. Immigration|last=LeMay|first=Michael C.|date=2012-12-10|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780313396441|language=en}}</ref> immigrants to the area all provided certain [[loanword]]s to the dialect (see "Vocabulary" below). Many of the sounds and words found in the dialect are popularly thought to be unique to Pittsburgh, but that is a misconception since the dialect resides throughout the greater part of western Pennsylvania and the surrounding areas.<ref name="johnstone2">{{cite journal|last=Johnstone|first=Barbara|author-link=Barbara Johnstone|author2=Baumgardt, Dan|title="Pittsburghese" Online: Vernacular Norming in Conversation|journal=American Speech|year=2004|volume=79|issue=2|pages=115–145|jstor=40281107|doi=10.1215/00031283-79-2-115|s2cid=3861413|url=https://works.bepress.com/barbara_johnstone/10/download/|access-date=2018-04-20|archive-date=2018-04-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421030804/https://works.bepress.com/barbara_johnstone/10/download/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="johnstone3">{{cite journal|last=Johnstone|first=Barbara|author-link=Barbara Johnstone|author2=Bhasin, Neeta|author3=Wittkofski, Denise|title="Dahntahn" Pittsburgh: Monophthongal /aw/ and Representations of Localness in Southwestern Pennsylvania|journal=American Speech|year=2002|volume=77|issue=2|pages=148–166|jstor=40281028|doi=10.1215/00031283-77-2-148|s2cid=2783229|url=https://works.bepress.com/barbara_johnstone/12/download/|access-date=2019-09-17|archive-date=2017-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922030945/https://works.bepress.com/barbara_johnstone/12/download/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Central Pennsylvania, currently an intersection of several dialect regions, was identified in 1949 by [[Hans Kurath]] as a subregion between western and eastern Pennsylvania,<ref name="Kurath1949">{{cite book|last=Kurath|first=Hans|title=A Word Geography of the Eastern United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HJQhAQAAIAAJ|access-date=21 October 2012|year=1949|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=9780472085323}}</ref><ref name="Salvucci 1999">{{Cite web |url=http://www.evolpub.com/Americandialects/PennaDialMap.html |title=Linguistic Geography of Pennsylvania |publisher=Evolution Publishing |access-date=2012-10-21 |year=1999 |last=Salvucci |first=Claudio}}</ref> but some scholars in the 20th century onwards have identified it within the western Pennsylvania dialect region.<ref name="Salvucci 1999" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Charles|title=An Introduction to the Phonetics of American English|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoph0000thom_i1s5|url-access=registration|access-date=21 October 2012|year=1958|publisher=Ronald Press|isbn=9780826086303 }}</ref> Since Kurath's study, one of western Pennsylvania's defining features, the [[cot–caught merger]], has expanded into central Pennsylvania,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=66}} moving eastward until being blocked at [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania|Harrisburg]].{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=123}} Perhaps the only feature whose distribution is restricted almost exclusively to the immediate [[Pittsburgh metropolitan area|vicinity of Pittsburgh]] is {{IPA|/aʊ/}} [[monophthongization]] in which words such as ''house'', ''down'', ''found'', and ''sauerkraut'' are sometimes pronounced with an "ah" sound, instead of the more standard pronunciation of "ow", rendering [[eye dialect|eye spellings]] such as ''hahs'', ''dahn'', ''fahnd'', and ''sahrkraht''.

Speakers of Pittsburgh English are sometimes called "Yinzers" in reference to their use of the second-person plural [[pronoun]] "[[yinz]]." The word "yinzer" is sometimes heard as pejorative, indicating a lack of sophistication, but the term is now used in a variety of ways.<ref name=johnstone1>{{cite conference |last=Johnstone |first=Barbara |author-link=Barbara Johnstone |title=Place, language, and semiotic order |conference=Urban Symbolic Landscapes conference |location=Helsinki |date=May 3, 2011}}</ref> Older men are more likely to use the accent than women "possibly because of a stronger interest in displaying local identity...."<ref>{{cite web|title=Questions and Answers: Who Uses Pittsburgh Speech the Most?|url=http://pittsburghspeech.pitt.edu/PittsburghSpeech_FAQ.html|work=Pittsburgh Speech and Society|publisher=University Library System, University of Pittsburgh|access-date=16 May 2013}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{IPA notice|section}}
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Vowels of Western Pennsylvania English
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! {{small|lax}}
! {{small|tense}}
! {{small|lax}}
! {{small|lax}}
! {{small|tense}}
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|ɪ}}
| {{IPA link|i}}
|
| {{IPA link|ʊ}}
| {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
|
| {{IPA link|ə}}
|
|
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPA link|æ}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɑ|ʌ}}
| {{IPA link|ɒ}}
|-
! [[Diphthong]]s
| colspan="6" | {{IPA|eɪ &nbsp; aɪ &nbsp; ɔɪ &nbsp; aʊ &nbsp; oʊ}}
|}

A defining feature of Western Pennsylvania English is the [[cot–caught merger]], in which {{IPA|/ɑ/}} (as in ''ah'') and {{IPA|/ɔ/}} (as in ''aw'') merge to a rounded {{IPA|/ɒ/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ɒ}}~{{IPAplink|ɔ}}]}}). As in most other American dialects, the [[father–bother merger]] also occurs.<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=gagnon>{{cite book|last=Gagnon|first=C. L.|title=Language attitudes in Pittsburgh: 'Pittsburghese' vs. standard English. Master's thesis|year=1999|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|location=Pittsburgh}}</ref> Therefore, ''cot'' and ''caught'' are both pronounced {{IPA|/kɒt/}}; ''Don'' and ''dawn'' are both {{IPA|/dɒn/}}. While the merger of the low back vowels is also widespread elsewhere in the United States, the rounded realizations of the merged vowel around {{IPA|[ɒ]}} is less common, except in [[Canadian English#The low-back merger and the Canadian Shift|Canada]], [[California English|California]] and [[Eastern New England English|Northeastern New England]].<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/>

{{IPA|/ɒ/}} has a stylistic variant, which is open central unrounded {{IPAblink|ä}}, as in the sarcastic pronunciation of ''I apologize'' as {{IPA|[aɪ əˈpʰäɫɨdʒaɪz]}}. It may also occur before {{IPA|/r/}}, as in ''start'' {{IPA|[stäɹʔt]}} or ''car'' {{IPA|[kʰäɹ]}}, but a more common pronunciation is back and rounded: {{IPA|[stɒɹʔt]}} etc. The vowel in ''hoarse'' is the same as the one in ''horse'', phonetically {{IPAblink|ɔ}}: {{IPA|[hɔɹs]}} but phonemically {{IPA|/oʊ/}} due to the cot-caught merger: {{IPA|/hoʊrs/}}.{{sfnp|Johnson|1971|pp=71–2}}{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=484}}

{{IPA|/ʌ/}} is backer and more open than {{IPAblink|ɜ}} found in [[Midland American English]], being closer to {{IPAblink|ɑ}}. This makes {{sc2|STRUT}} an unrounded counterpart of {{sc2|LOT}}, with pairs such as ''nut'' {{IPA|[nɑʔt]}} vs. ''not'' {{IPA|[nɒʔt]}} or ''cut'' {{IPA|[kʰɑʔt]}} vs. ''cot'' {{IPA|[kʰɒʔt]}} contrasting mainly by [[roundedness]]. This is also found in contemporary Standard Southern British English, where ''nut'' {{IPA|[nʌʔt]}} also differs from ''not'' {{IPA|[nɔʔt]}} by rounding (though ''nought'' has a contrastive {{sc2|THOUGHT}} vowel instead: {{IPA|[no̞ːʔt]}}, which falls together with {{IPAblink|ɒ}} in Pittsburgh). Earlier reports give {{IPAblink|ɜ}} as the norm for {{sc2|STRUT}} in Pittsburgh. The remaining checked vowels {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, {{IPA|/ʊ/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/æ/}} are all within the General American norm.{{sfnp|Johnson|1971|p=70}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=88–9}}{{sfnp|Cruttenden|2014|pp=122, 126–128, 130}}

The {{sc2|GOAT}} vowel often has an unrounded central or fronted starting point in Pittsburgh: {{IPA|[əʊ]}}. Outside of the city itself, {{IPA|[oʊ]}} is more common. {{sc2|GOOSE}} is sometimes also fronted, to {{IPA|[ɨu]}} (more usual value: {{IPA|[ʊu]}}). As in other American dialects, {{sc2|FLEECE}} and {{sc2|FACE}} are narrow diphthongs {{IPA|[ɪi, ee̝]}}. {{sc2|CHOICE}} is also within GenAm norm: {{IPA|[ɔ̟ɪ]}}.{{sfnp|Johnson|1971|pp=70–2}}

The {{sc2|PRICE}} vowel alone undergoes [[Canadian raising]] to {{IPA|[ɜɪ]}} before voiceless consonants, as in ''ice'' {{IPA|[ɜɪs]}}. In 1971, the [[Journal of the International Phonetic Association]] published a description of the dialect, whose author Bruce Lee Johnson notes that the auxiliary verb ''might'' is typically pronounced with nasalization, as {{IPA|[mɜ̃ɪ̃ʔt]}}.{{sfnp|Johnson|1971|pp=72–3}} Elsewhere in the article, this allophone is transcribed {{angbr IPA|ʌɪ}}, following its usual transcription on Wikipedia.

The {{sc2|MOUTH}} vowel typically begins front in the mouth {{IPA|[æʊ]}}. A less common variant has a central starting point, {{IPA|[äʊ]}}, matching the starting point of {{sc2|PRICE}} ({{IPA|[äɪ]}}).{{sfnp|Johnson|1971|pp=71–2}} It is [[monophthong]]ized to {{IPA|[aː]}} in some environments (sounding instead like ''ah''), namely: before [[nasal stop|nasal consonants]] (''downtown'' {{IPA|[daːnˈtʰaːn]}} and ''found'' {{IPA|[faːnd]}}), [[liquid consonant]]s (''fowl'', ''hour'') and [[obstruent]]s (''house'' {{IPA|[haːs]}}, ''out'', ''cloudy'').<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=gagnon/> The monophthongization does not occur, however, in word-final positions (''how'', ''now''), and the diphthong then remains {{IPA|[æʊ]}}.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Kortmann |editor-first=Bernd |editor-first2=Edgar W. |editor-last2=Schneider |year=2004 |title=A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |pages=407–416 |doi=10.1515/9783110175325|isbn=978-3-11-019718-1 }}</ref> That is one of the few features, if not the only one, restricted almost exclusively to western Pennsylvania in North America, but it can sometimes be found in other accents of the English-speaking world, such as [[Cockney]] and [[South African English]].<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/> The sound may be the result of contact from [[Slavic languages]] during the early 20th century.<ref name=johnstone3/> Monophthongization also occurs for the sound {{IPA|/aɪ/}}, as in ''eye'', before liquid consonants,<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=gagnon/><ref name=hankey1>{{cite journal|last=Hankey|first=Clyde T.|title=Miscellany: 'tiger,' 'tagger,' and [aɪ] in western Pennsylvania|journal=American Speech|year=1965|volume=40|issue=3|pages=226–229|jstor=454074|doi=10.2307/454074}}</ref>  so that ''tile'' is pronounced {{IPA|[tʰɑːɫ]}}; ''pile'' is pronounced {{IPA|[pʰɑːɫ]}}; and ''iron'' is pronounced {{IPA|[ɑːɹn]}}. That phenomenon allows ''tire'' to merge with the sound of ''tar'': {{IPA|[tʰɑːɹ]}}.

The {{sc2|NURSE}} vowel (phonemically an {{IPA|/ər/}} sequence) is phonetically close-mid {{IPAblink|ɘ|ɘ˞}}.{{sfnp|Johnson|1971|p=72}}

Johnson notes a tendency to diphthongize {{IPA|/æ/}} to {{IPA|[ɛə]}} not only before nasals (as in GenAm) but also before all voiced consonants (as in ''bad'' {{IPA|[bɛəd]}}) and voiceless fricatives (as in ''grass'' {{IPA|[ɡɹɛəs]}}).{{sfnp|Johnson|1971|p=72}} This has since been reversed and now {{IPA|[ɛə]}} is confined to the environment of a following nasal, matching the GenAm allophony.{{sfnp|Duncan|2016|pp=1–2}}

An [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] (intruding) {{IPA|/r/}} sound may occur after vowels in a few words, such as ''water'' pronounced as {{IPA|[ˈwɔɹɾɚ]}}, and ''wash'' as {{IPA|[wɔɹʃ]}}.<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/>

A number of [[vowel merger]]s occur uniquely in Western Pennsylvania English before the consonant {{IPA|/l/}}. The pair of vowels {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/ɪ/}} may merge before the {{IPA|/l/}} consonant,<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=gagnon/>{{sfnp|Brown|1982}} cause both ''steel'' and ''still'' to be pronounced as something like {{IPA|[stɪɫ]}}. Similarly, {{IPA|/u/}}, {{IPA|/oʊ/}}, and {{IPA|/ʊ/}} may merge before {{IPA|/l/}}, so that  ''pool'', ''pull'', and ''pole'' may merge to something like {{IPA|[pʰʊɫ]}}. On the {{IPA|/il/~/ɪl/}} merger, Labov, Ash and Boberg (2006) note "the stereotype of merger of {{IPA|/ɪl ~ il/}} is based only on a close approximation of some forms, and does not represent the underlying norms of the dialect."{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=72}} The {{IPA|/i/~/ɪ/}} merger is found in western Pennsylvania,<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=gagnon/>{{sfnp|Brown|1982}} as well as parts of the southern United States, including Alabama, Texas and the west (McElhinny 1999). On the other hand, the {{IPA|/u/~/ʊ/}} merger is consistently found only in western Pennsylvania. The {{IPA|/i/~/ɪ/}} merger towards {{IPA|[ɪ]}} may also appear before {{IPA|/ɡ/}}: ''eagle'' then sounds to outsiders like ''iggle''.<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=gagnon/>

[[L-vocalization|''L''-vocalization]] is also common in the Western Pennsylvania dialect; an {{IPA|/l/}} then sounds like a {{IPA|/w/}} or a cross between a vowel and a "dark" {{IPA|/l/}} at the end of a syllable.<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=hankey2>{{cite book|last=Hankey|first=Clyde T.|title=Notes on west Penn-Ohio phonology. In: Studies in Linguistics in Honor of Raven I. McDavid, Jr., ed. by L.M. Davis|year=1972|publisher=University of Alabama Press|isbn=978-0-8173-0010-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/studiesinlinguis0000unse/page/49 49–61]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/studiesinlinguis0000unse/page/49}}</ref> For example, ''well'' is pronounced as {{IPA|[wɛw]}}; ''milk'' as {{IPA|[mɪwk]}} or {{IPA|[mɛwk]}}; ''role'' as {{IPA|[ɹʊw]}}; and ''cold'' as {{IPA|[ˈkʰʊwd]}}. The phenomenon is also common in [[African-American English]].

The word ''mirror'' can be pronounced as the single-syllable ''mere''.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

Western Pennsylvania English speakers may use falling intonation at the end of questions,<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=fasold>{{cite journal|last=Fasold|first=Ralph W.|title=The conversational function of Pennsylvania Dutch intonation|journal=Paper Presented at New Ways of Analyzing Variation (NWAVE IX) at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI|year=1980}}</ref> for example, in "Are you painting your garage?" {{IPA|[↗ˈɒɹ jə ˈpʰeɪɾ̃ɪŋ jɚ ɡə↘ˈɹɒdʒ]}} (with pitch rising in intonation up to just before the last syllable and then falling precipitously).<ref name=fasold/> Such speakers typically use falling pitch for yes–no questions for which they already are quite sure of the answer. A speaker uttering the above example is simply confirming what is already thought: yes, the person spoken to is painting their garage. It is most common in areas of heavy German settlement, especially southeastern Pennsylvania,<ref name=fasold/> hence its nickname, the "Pennsylvania Dutch question", but it is also found elsewhere in Pennsylvania, including Pittsburgh.<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=fasold/>{{sfnp|Maxfield|1931}}{{sfnp|Layton|1999}}{{sfnp|Wisnosky|2003}}{{sfnp|Johnstone|Andrus|Danielson|2006}} It is of German origin.<ref name=fasold/>

==Vocabulary==
[[File:Redd-Up - City of Pittsburgh Recycling Drop-Off Center Sign.jpg|thumb|City of Pittsburgh Recycling Drop-Off Center sign using the term "redd up", illustrating an example of Western Pennsylvania English.]]
{{div col}}

*''[[wikt:babushka#Noun|babushka]]'' - (''n.'') headscarf<ref name=DARE1/>{{efn|In Russian, Slovak, and many other Slavic languages, the word babushka (a familial/cute extension of the word ''baba'') means "grandmother" or (endearingly) "old woman." In Pittsburgh and much Northern U.S. English, the word also denotes a type of headscarf that might be worn by an old woman. Predominantly used in the northeast United States, ''babushka'' is most heavily in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan. It is sometimes used as a derogatory term for an elderly woman, similar to calling someone an "old hag."{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}}}
*''[[Shopping cart#Name|buggy]]'' - (''n.'') shopping cart{{efn|Kurath (1949) mentions that speakers in a large portion of Pennsylvania use the term, but that it is "very common in the Pittsburgh area[,]...[in] the adjoining counties of Ohio and on the lower Kanawha"}}
**''baby buggy'' - (''n.'') baby carriage
*''the 'Burgh'' - (''n.'') Pittsburgh<ref name=johnstone3/>{{sfnp|Johnstone|Andrus|Danielson|2006}}
*''beal'' - (''v.'') to fester or suppurate<ref name=DARE1/>
*''bealed'' - (''adj.'') usually of an ear: infected or abscessed<ref name=DARE1/>
*''belling'' - (''n.'') noisy celebration or mock serenade for newlyweds; a [[Charivari|shivaree]]<ref name="DARE1"/>
*''[[berm]]'' - (''n.'') edge of the road, curb: an accepted alternative to "shoulder of the road"<ref name="DARE1"/>
*''carbon oil'' - (''n.'') kerosene{{efn|According to Kurath (1949), this may be heard from the western edge of the Alleghenies to beyond the Ohio line}}
*''chipped ham'' - (''n.'') very thinly sliced chopped ham loaf for sandwiches (from a local brand name)<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/> (see [[chipped chopped ham]])
*''[[city chicken]]'' - (''n.'') cubes of [[pork]] loin and/or [[veal]] on a short wooden [[skewer]], breaded, then fried or baked<ref name="Pittsburgh">{{Citation | title = Something different, Something delicious: City Chicken | newspaper = [[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]] | page = 4   | date = 2 November 1932 | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=nsJRAAAAIBAJ&pg=5874,5068621&dq=city-chicken&hl=en | access-date = 16 September 2016}}</ref>{{efn|This is heard in Southwestern Pennsylvania and Northern West Virginia. It origins are not entirely known, but rumored to have begun during the [[Great Depression|Depression Era]], when people took meat scraps and fashioned a makeshift [[drumstick (poultry)|drumstick]] out of them.}}
*''cubberd'' - (''n.'') closet<ref name="johnstone4">{{cite book|last=Johnstone|first=Barbara|title=Speaking Pittsburghese: The Story of a Dialect|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-199-94568-9}}</ref>
*''craw'' - (''n.'') crawfish<ref name="DARE1"/>
*''crick'' - (''n.'') Creek
*''cruds'', ''crudded milk'', or ''cruddled milk'' - (''n.'') cottage cheese<ref name=crozier>{{cite journal|last=Crozier|first=Alan|title=The Scotch-Irish influence on American English|journal=American Speech|year=1984|volume=59|issue=4|pages=310–331|jstor=454783|doi=10.2307/454783}}</ref>{{efn|Kurath (1949) claims these forms are used from the western edge of the Alleghenies to beyond the Ohio line; and Crozier claims that they are restricted to southwestern Pennsylvania, from Scots-Irish English origins.}}
*''diamond'' - (''n.'') town square<ref name="johnstone4"/>
*''dippy'' - (''adj.'') appropriate for dipping into, such as gravy, coffee, egg yolks, etc.<ref name=DARE2>{{cite book|last=Cassidy|first=F. G. and. J.H. Hall., Eds.|title=Dictionary of American Regional English, Vol. II: D-H.|year=1991|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-674-20512-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofamer0000unse_a4m8}}</ref> 
*''doll baby'' - (''n.'') complimentary term for an attractively childlike girl or woman (reversal of "baby doll")
*''drooth'' - (''n.'') drought<ref name=DARE1/><ref name ="johnstone5">{{cite book|last=Johnstone|first=Barbara|title=Pittsburgh Speech and Pittsburghese|year=2015|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH|isbn=978-1-614-51178-6}}</ref>
*''Dubbya'' - (''n.'') Letter "W", Often used when saying "www." Or a local station 
*''dupa'' - (''n.'') parental term (of Polish origin) for a child's backside
*''feature'' - (''v.'') to think about, understand, or imagine
*''grinnie'' - (''n.'') [[chipmunk]]{{efn|Kurath 1949): This term is used from the western edge of the Alleghenies to beyond the Ohio line.}}
*''gumband'' - (''n.'') [[rubber band]];<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=DARE2/> elastic fastener<ref name=johnstone4/>
*''gutchies; or undergutchies'' (''n.'') term used to describe undergarments of any variety. 
*''hap'' - (''n.'') comfort; or, comforter or quilt:<ref name=crozier/>{{efn|This can mean "comfort", as in "He's been in poor hap since his wife died",{{sfnp|Maxfield|1931}} or "comforter or quilt," as in "It was cold last night but that hap kept me warm." ''Hap'' is used for "comfort" in western Pennsylvania;{{sfnp|Maxfield|1931}} and a "quilt" is known as a ''hap'' only in western Pennsylvania.}}
*''[[hoagie]]'' - (''n.'') a [[submarine sandwich|sub]] (i.e., submarine sandwich; used throughout Pennsylvania)<ref name=DARE2/>
*''hoopy'' - (''n.'') a person perceived as unsophisticated or having rural sensibilities (i.e., redneck or hillbilly; used especially in Ohio Valley and northern West Virginia)
*''jag'' - (''v.'') to prick, stab, or jab;<ref name=DARE3>{{cite book|last=Cassidy|first=F. G. and J. H. Hall, Eds.|title=Dictionary of American Regional English, Volume III: I-O|year=1996|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-674-20519-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofamer0000unse_a4m8}}</ref> to tease{{sfnp|Johnstone|Andrus|Danielson|2006}} (often, ''jag off'' or ''jag around''){{efn|name="jagoff"|The word is often followed by ''off'' to mean (as a verb) "to annoy, irritate, play tricks on; to disparage; to reject", or (as a noun) "an annoying or irritating person;" as well as ''around'' to mean "annoy, tease, or engage in a frivolous endeavor." These phrases are probably influenced by ''jack off'' and ''jack around'', respectively. "Jus' jaggin'" is a common expression, the same as standard "just kidding". Descended from Scots-Irish usage in English, this is chiefly a Pennsylvania term, especially southwestern Pennsylvania, but also portions of Appalachia.}}<ref name=DARE3/>
**''jagger'' - (''n.''/''adj.'') any small, sharp-pointed object or implement,<ref name=DARE3/> usually [[thorns, spines, and prickles]] (as in a ''jagger bush'' or "I got a jagger in my finger").
**''jaggerbush'' - (''n.'') briar<ref name="johnstone4"/>
**''[[jagoff]]'' - (''n.'') an idiot, fool, or unlikeable person{{efn|name="jagoff"}}
*''jimmies'' - (''n.'') [[sprinkles]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2011/03/13/the_jimmies_story/|title=The jimmies story|newspaper=Boston.com|last1=Freeman|first1=Jan}}</ref>
*''jumbo'' - (''n.'') bologna lunch meat<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=DARE3/>{{sfnp|Wisnosky|2003}}{{sfnp|Johnstone|Andrus|Danielson|2006}}
*''"Kennywood's open"'' - idiom used to inform someone that their fly is open ("Kennywood" referring to the [[Kennywood|Kennywood amusement park]] in [[West Mifflin, Pennsylvania]])
*''Klondike'' - (''n.'') any ice cream bar, even if not specifically a [[Klondike bar]] (first marketed in nearby [[Youngstown, Ohio]]).<ref name="johnstone4"/>
*{{lang|en|kolbusy}} or {{lang|en|kolbassi}} - (''n.'') variant pronunciation of [[kielbasa]]<ref name=DARE3/> ({{IPA|/kʊlˈbɒsi/}}){{efn|The OED (1991) lists ''kolbasa'' as a variable pronunciation of ''kielbasa'', and notes that the former pronunciation is Polish and the latter Russian.}}
*''monkey ball'' - (''n.'') fruit of the ''[[Maclura pomifera]]'' or ''monkey ball tree''<ref>{{cite web|last=Parker|first=Jeanie|title=Gardening: The fruit of the Osage orange tree has many odd reputed uses|url=http://old.post-gazette.com/magazine/20000902monkeyballs6.asp|work=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|publisher=PG Publishing|access-date=26 February 2014|date=September 2, 2000|archive-date=5 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141005223311/http://old.post-gazette.com/magazine/20000902monkeyballs6.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*''n'at'' ({{IPA|/əˈnæt/}}) - et cetera; and so on; a "general extender";<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/> literally, a contraction of "and (all) that"<ref name="ReferenceA">McElhinny 1999; Wisnosky 2003; Johnstone, Andrus and Danielson 2006</ref>{{efn|The distribution of ''n'at'' is Southwestern Pennsylvania, possibly Scots-Irish. Macaulay (1995) finds it in the regular speech and narratives of Scottish coal miners in Glasgow, a principal area from which Scottish settlers emigrated to Northern Ireland, and from there, to the American colonies.}}
*''neb'' - (''v.'') to pry into a conversation or argument intrusively or impertinently<ref name=DARE3/> (this term and its derivatives are common to Pennsylvania, but especially southwestern Pennsylvania, from Scots-Irish English)
**''neb out'' -  to mind one's own business
**''neb-nose'' or ''nebby-nose'' (also ''nebshit'') - (''n.'') the kind of person who is always poking into people's affairs;<ref name=DARE3/> inquisitive person<ref name=johnstone4/>
**''nebby'' - (''adj.'') given to prying into the affairs of others; nosey;<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name="ReferenceA"/> inquisitive<ref name=johnstone4/>
*''onion snow'' - (''n.'') early spring snow<ref name=johnstone4/>
*''redd up'' (also ''ret, rid, ridd,'' or ''redd out'') - (''v.'') to tidy up, clean up, or clean out (a room, house, cupboard, etc.); to clean house, tidy up (hence v bl. ''redding up'' house-cleaning; tidying up)<ref name=DARE4>{{cite book|editor-last=Hall|editor-first=J. H.|title=Dictionary of American Regional English, Volume IV: P-Sk|year=2002|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-674-00884-7|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofamer0000unse_a4m8}}</ref><ref name=dressman>{{cite journal|last=Dressman|first=Michael R.|title=Redd up|journal=American Speech|year=1979|volume=54|issue=2|pages=141–145|jstor=455213|doi=10.2307/455213}}</ref><ref>Also see McElhinny (1999); Johnstone, Andrus and Danielson (2006).</ref>{{efn|An example of this term is "Yinz better redd up this room". Dressman notes that it is common to the Pittsburgh area and throughout Pennsylvania, but less so in Philadelphia. It is also scattered about New England States and in New Brunswick, though its occurrence is heaviest in Pennsylvania. Hall states that its distribution is "scattered, but chiefly N. Midland, esp PA". Dressman suggested that it was brought to the U.S. by Scots. It's almost certainly of Scandinavian/Viking origin; the Danish "rydde op" means to clean up. "Redd up" and its associated variants probably entered the English language from old Norse.}}<ref name="AHD">{{cite book|author=((Editors of the American Heritage Dictionaries))|title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage00edit_9|url-access=registration|access-date=26 October 2012|edition=Fourth|year=2006|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-618-70173-5}}</ref>
*''reverend'' - (''adj.'') extreme;<ref name=johnstone4/> extraordinary, powerful<ref name=johnstone5/>
*''slippy'' - (''adj.'') slippery (from Scots-Irish English)<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/>
*''spicket'' - (''n.'') alternate pronunciation of [[spigot]], specifically an outdoor faucet used to connect to a garden hose<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/spicket|title=Definition of SPICKET|website=www.merriam-webster.com}}</ref>
*''Squill'' - (''n.'') shortening of [[Squirrel Hill]].
*''Stillers'' - (''n.'') alternate pronunciation of the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theburghermag.wordpress.com/2012/03/21/yinzer-basics-pittsburghese-for-beginners/|title=Yinzer Basics: Pittsburghese for Beginners|date=March 21, 2012}}</ref>
*''sweep'' - (''v.'') to vacuum
*''sweeper'' - (''n.'') [[vacuum cleaner]] (also used in Ohio and Indiana; from [[carpet sweeper]])
*''tossle cap'' - (''n.'') knit hat designed to provide warmth in cold weather
*''trick'' - (''n.'') a job shift (as used in West-Central Pennsylvania)<ref>{{cite web |title=Yunzonics: Translating Pennsylvanian |url=http://www.tomtwine.com/pa.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923132617/http://www.tomtwine.com:80/pa.html |archive-date=23 September 2009 |url-status=usurped |website=tomtwine.com |publisher=Thomas H. Twine |access-date=19 April 2022}}</ref>
*''yins'', ''[[yinz]]'', ''yunz'', ''you'uns'', or ''youns'' - (''pronoun'') plural of ''you'' (second-person personal plural pronoun from Scots-Irish English)<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=crozier/><ref>McElhinny 1999; Wisnosky 2003; Johnstone, Andrus and Danielson 2006: Used Southwestern Pennsylvania and elsewhere in Appalachia, ''[[yinz]]'' is a particularly salient feature of Pittsburgh speech</ref><ref name=johnstone1/><ref name="Marzec" /><ref>Montgomery 2001</ref>
{{div col end}}

==Grammar==
*''All'' to mean ''all gone'': When referring to consumable products, the word ''all'' has a secondary meaning: ''all gone''. For example, the phrase ''the butter's all'' would be understood as "the butter is all gone." This likely derives from German.<ref name="Metcalf2000">{{cite book|last=Metcalf|first=Allan |title=How We Talk: American Regional English Today|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618043637|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618043637/page/92 92]|access-date=26 October 2012|year=2000|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-618-04362-0}}</ref>
*"[[Positive anymore|Positive ''anymore'']]": In addition to the normal negative use of ''anymore'' it can also, as in the greater [[Midland American English|Midland U.S. dialect]], be used in a positive sense to mean "these days" or "nowadays".{{sfnp|Montgomery|1989}}{{sfnp|McElhinny|1999}}{{sfnp|Montgomery|1999}} An example is "I wear these shoes a lot anymore". While in Standard English ''anymore'' must be used as a negative polarity item (NPI), some speakers in Pittsburgh and throughout the Midland area do not have this restriction.<ref name="Marzec">{{cite book|author=Robert P. Marzec|title=The Mid-Atlantic Region|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nsye_8Ewk0oC&pg=PA271|access-date=1 November 2012|date=30 December 2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32954-8|page=271}}</ref> This is somewhat common in both the Midland regions (Montgomery 1989) and in northern Maryland (Frederick, Hagerstown, and Westminster), likely of Scots-Irish origin.{{sfnp|Montgomery|1999}}
*Reversed usage of ''leave'' and ''let'':<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=Adams>{{cite journal|last=Adams|first=Michael|title=Lexical Doppelgängers|journal=Journal of English Linguistics|year=2003|volume=28|issue=3|pages=295–310|doi=10.1177/00754240022005054|s2cid=220752970}}</ref> Examples of this include "Leave him go outside" and "Let the book on the table". ''Leave'' is used in some contexts in which, in standard English, ''let'' would be used; and vice versa. Used in Southwestern Pennsylvania and elsewhere, this is either Pennsylvania Dutch or Scots-Irish.<ref name=Adams/>
*"''Need'', ''want'', or ''like'' + past participle":<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref>{{cite book|last=Still|first=Brian |title=Usability of Complex Information Systems: Evaluation of User Interaction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mEbpKt_PaiAC&pg=PA57|access-date=1 November 2012|date=15 October 2010|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-2894-6|page=57}}</ref> Examples of this include "The car needs washed", "The cat wants petted", and "Babies like cuddled". More common constructions are "The grass needs cutting" or "The grass needs to be cut" or "Babies like cuddling" or "Babies like to be cuddled"; "The car needs washing" or "The car needs to be washed"; and "The cat wants petting" or "The cat wants to be petted." Found predominantly in the North Midland region, this is especially common in southwestern Pennsylvania.{{sfnp|Murray|Frazer|Simon|1996}}{{sfnp|Murray|Simon|1999}}{{sfnp|Murray|Simon|2002}} ''Need'' + past participle is the most common construction, followed by ''want'' + past participle, and then ''like'' + past participle. The forms are "implicationally related" to one another (Murray and Simon 2002). This means the existence of a less common construction from the list in a given location entails the existence of the more common ones there, but not vice versa. The constructions "''like'' + past participle" and "''need'' + past participle" are Scots-Irish.{{sfnp|Murray|Frazer|Simon|1996}}{{sfnp|Murray|Simon|1999}}{{sfnp|Montgomery|2001}}{{sfnp|Murray|Simon|2002}} While Adams argues that "''want'' + past participle" could be from Scots-Irish or German,<ref name=Adams/> it seems likely that this construction is Scots-Irish, as Murray and Simon claim.{{sfnp|Murray|Simon|1999}}{{sfnp|Murray|Simon|2002}} ''like'' and ''need'' + past participle are Scots-Irish, the distributions of all three constructions are implicationally related, the area where they are predominantly found is most heavily influenced by Scots-Irish, and a related construction, "''want'' + directional adverb", as in "The cat wants out", is Scots-Irish.<ref name=crozier/><ref name="Marzec" />
*"Punctual ''whenever''": "Whenever" is often used to mean "at the time that."{{sfnp|Montgomery|2001}} An example is "My mother, whenever she passed away, she had pneumonia." A ''punctual'' descriptor refers to the use of the word for "a onetime momentary event rather than in its two common uses for a recurrent event or a conditional one". This Scots-Irish usage is found in the Midlands and the South.

==Notable lifelong speakers==
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2025}}
* [[Kurt Angle]]
* [[Myron Cope]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Hundt|first=Brad|date=November 22, 2024|title=Myron Cope recalled in a new biography co-written by Mt. Lebanon native|url=https://www.observer-reporter.com/living/entertainment-2/2024/nov/22/myron-cope-recalled-in-a-new-biography-co-written-by-mt-lebanon-native/|work=[[Observer–Reporter]]|access-date=March 24, 2025|quote=with a Pittsburgh accent as thick as a bowlful of pierogies}}</ref>&nbsp;– Cope's colorful vocabulary added dozens of words to the dialect, including his most famous, "Yoi!"
* [[Billy Gardell]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Loeffler|first=William|date=July 21, 2010|title=Performing back home no joke for Billy Gardell|url=https://archive.triblive.com/news/performing-back-home-no-joke-for-billy-gardell/|work=TribLIVE|publisher=Trib Total Media|access-date=April 16, 2025}}</ref> &nbsp;– Although he grew up some of the time away from the city, Gardell sports a heavy Pittsburgh accent.
* [[John Kasich]]<ref>{{cite interview|last=Dent|first=Charlie|subject-link=Charlie Dent|date=April 25, 2016|title=Congressman Charlie Dent Throws Support Behind John Kasich|url=https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2016/04/25/charlie-dent-supports-john-kasich|work=[[Here and Now (Boston)|Here & Now]]|interviewer-last=Hobson|interviewer-first=Jeremy|interviewer-link=Jeremy Hobson|location=Boston, Massachusetts|publisher=WBUR|access-date=April 16, 2025}}</ref>
* [[Michael Keaton]]
* [[Billy Mays]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Kalson|first=Sally|date=April 28, 2009|title=McKees Rocks' Billy Mays has a 'pahrful' career as a pitchman|url=https://www.post-gazette.com/business/businessnews/2009/04/28/McKees-Rocks-Billy-Mays-has-a-pahrful-career-as-a-pitchman/stories/200904280210|work=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|publisher=Block Communications|access-date=April 16, 2025}}</ref>
* [[Pat McAfee]]
* [[Arnold Palmer]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Sirak|first=Ron|date=October 6, 2016|title=Goodbye to the King: Arnold Palmer Goes Home One Last Time|url=https://www.ronsirak.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/arnoldpalmer.pdf|access-date=April 17, 2025}}</ref>
* [[Trent Reznor]]
* [[Fred Rogers]]<ref>{{cite news|author=<!-- "Chicago Tribune" -->|date=February 21, 1993|title='MR. ROGERS' MAKES LONGEVITY LOOK LIKE KIDS' STUFF|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1993/02/21/mr-rogers-makes-longevity-look-like-kids-stuff/|work=Chicago Tribune|publisher=Tribune Publishing
|access-date=April 16, 2025}}</ref> &nbsp;– Rogers' accent is an example of the softer variation of the accent that was spoken by the middle class of the era that he grew up in.
* [[Art Rooney]]
* [[Dan Rooney]]

==See also==
* [[Jagoff]]
* [[Midland American English]]
* [[Pennsylvania Dutch English]]
* [[Philadelphia English|Philadelphia accent]]
* ''[[Pittsburgh Dad]]''
* [[Regional vocabularies of American English]]
* [[Yinztagram]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|35em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Brown |first=C. |title=A search for sound change: A look at the lowering of tense vowels before liquids in the Pittsburgh area |degree=MA |year=1982 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh |location=Pittsburgh}}
* {{cite book
|last=Cruttenden
|first=Alan
|year=2014
|title=Gimson's Pronunciation of English
|publisher=Routledge
|edition=8th
|isbn=9781444183092
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Duncan
|first=Daniel
|title='Tense' /æ/ Is still lax: A phonotactics study
|year=2016
|editor1-last=Hansson
|editor1-first=Gunnar Ólafur
|editor2-last=Farris-Trimble
|editor2-first=Ashley
|editor3-last=McMullin
|editor3-first=Kevin
|editor4-last=Pulleyblank
|editor4-first=Douglas
|journal=Proceedings of the Annual Meetings on Phonology
|volume=3
|location=Washington, D.C.
|publisher=Linguistic Society of America
|doi=10.3765/amp.v3i0.3653
|url=http://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/amphonology/article/viewFile/3653/3370
}}
* {{citation
|last=Johnson
|first=Bruce Lee
|year=1971
|title=The Western Pennsylvania dialect of American English
|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association
|volume=1
|issue=2
|pages=69–73
|doi=10.1017/S0025100300000268
|jstor=44526647
|s2cid=146649800
}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Johnstone | first1 = B. | last2 = Andrus | first2 = J. | last3 = Danielson | first3 = A. | year = 2006 | title = Mobility, indexicality, and the enregisterment of "Pittsburghese" | journal = Journal of English Linguistics | volume = 34 | issue = 2| pages = 77–104 | doi=10.1177/0075424206290692| s2cid = 3851451 | url = https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/6469676 }}
* {{citation
|last1=Labov
|first1=William
|author-link=William Labov
|last2=Ash
|first2=Sharon
|last3=Boberg
|first3=Charles
|year=2006
|title=The Atlas of North American English
|location=Berlin
|publisher=Mouton-de Gruyter
|pages=187–208
|isbn=978-3-11-016746-7
|title-link=The Atlas of North American English
}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Layton |first=N. N. |year=1999 |title=The dialect of western Pennsylvania: evaluation of ten sounds |degree=MA |location=Gothenburg, Sweden |publisher=University of Gothenburg}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Maxfield |first1=E. K. |year=1931 |title=The speech of south-western Pennsylvania |journal=American Speech |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=18–20 |doi=10.2307/451308 |jstor=451308}}
*{{cite journal |last1=McElhinny |first1=B |year=1999 |title=More on the third dialect of English: linguistic constraints on the use of three phonological variables in Pittsburgh |journal=Language Variation and Change |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=171–195 |doi=10.1017/s0954394599112031| s2cid=145656857}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Montgomery |first1=M. B. |year=1989 |title=Exploring the roots of Appalachian English |journal=English World-Wide |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=227–278 |doi=10.1075/eww.10.2.03mon}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Montgomery |first1=M. B. |year=2001 |title='My mother, whenever she died, she had pneumonia': The history and functions of ''whenever'' |journal=Journal of English Linguistics |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=234–249 |doi=10.1177/00754240122005350 |s2cid=143776545}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Murray |first1=T. E. |last2=Frazer |first2=T. C. |last3=Simon |first3=B. L. |year=1996 |title=Need + past participle in American English |journal=American Speech |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=255–271 |doi=10.2307/455549|jstor = 455549}}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Murray | first1 = T. E. | last2 = Simon | first2 = B. L. | year = 1999 | title = Want + past participle in American English | jstor = 455576 | journal = American Speech | volume = 74 | issue = 2| pages = 140–164 }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Murray | first1 = T. E. | last2 = Simon | first2 = B. L. | year = 2002 | title = At the intersection of regional and social dialects: the case of like + past participle in American English | journal = American Speech | volume = 77 | issue = 1| pages = 32–69 | doi=10.1215/00031283-77-1-32| s2cid = 143892781 }}
* {{Accents of English|hide1=y|hide2=y}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Wisnosky |first=M. |year=2003 |title='Pittsburghese' in Pittsburgh humor |degree=MA |location=Pittsburgh |publisher=University of Pittsburgh}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite news |last=Blackley |first=Katie |title=Redd Up Your Pittsburghese: A Deep Dive Into How Yinz Talk |url=https://www.wesa.fm/arts-sports-culture/2017-09-28/redd-up-your-pittsburghese-a-deep-dive-into-how-yinz-talk |publisher=[[WESA (FM)|WESA-FM]] |date=28 September 2017 |access-date=22 November 2021}}
* {{cite book |title=Pittsburghese from Ahrn to Yinz |author=[[Heinz History Center]] staff |publisher=Senator John Heinz History Center |date=2015 |isbn=978-0936340210}}
* {{cite book |last=Kurath |first=Hans |year=1949 |chapter=Western Pennsylvania |title=A Word Geography of the Eastern United States |location=Ann Arbor |publisher=University of Michigan Press |pages=35–36 |lccn=49050233}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kurath |first1=Hans |last2=McDavid |first2=Raven I. Jr. |year=1961 |chapter=Western Pennsylvania |title=The pronunciation of English in the Atlantic United States |location=Ann Arbor |publisher=University of Michigan Press |pages=17–18 |lccn=60005671}}
* {{cite book |last1=Labov |first1=William |first2=Sharon |last2=Ash |first3=Charles |last3=Boberg |year=2005 |title=The atlas of North American English: phonetics, phonology, and sound change |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |isbn=9783110167467 |doi=10.1515/9783110167467}}
* {{cite book |last=Macauley |first=Ronald K. S. |year=1985 |chapter=The narrative skills of a Scottish coal miner |title=Focus on: Scotland |series=Varieties of English Around the World |editor-first=Manfred |editor-last=Gorlach |doi=10.1075/veaw.g5.08mac |location=Philadelphia |publisher=John Benjamins |pages=101–124|isbn=978-90-272-4863-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Montgomery |first=Michael B. |year=1997 |chapter=A tale of two Georges: the language of Irish Indian traders in colonial North America |title=Focus on: Ireland |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Kallen |location=Philadelphia |publisher=John Benjamins |pages=227–254 |doi=10.1075/veaw.g21.15mon}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Montgomery |first1=Michael B. |year=2002 |title=The structural history of ''y'all'', ''you all'', and ''you'uns'' |journal=Southern Journal of Linguistics |volume=26 |pages=19–27 |id={{ProQuest|2152905187}}}}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Newlin | first1 = Claude M. | year = 1928 | title = Dialects on the western Pennsylvania frontier | journal = American Speech | volume = 4 | issue = 2| pages = 104–110 | doi=10.2307/452864| jstor = 452864 }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Shields | first1 = Kenneth Jr. | year = 1985 | title = Germanisms in Pennsylvania English: an update | journal = American Speech | volume = 60 | issue = 3| pages = 228–237 | doi=10.2307/454887| jstor = 454887 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=J. A. |first2=E. S. C. |last2=Weiner |year=1991 |title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Tenny | first1 = Carol | year = 1998 | title = Psych verbs and verbal passives in Pittsburghese | journal = Linguistics | volume = 36 | pages = 591–597 |url=https://www.linguist.org/files/Psych-Verbal-Passives.pdf}}
* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=E. |year=2001 |title=An acoustic analysis of vowel variation in New World English |location=Durham, NC |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=0822364948}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://pittsburghspeech.pitt.edu/ Pittsburgh Speech & Society], University of Pittsburgh
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/17/travel/escapes/its-not-the-sights-its-the-sounds.html "It's Not the Sights, It's the Sounds"], ''New York Times'' article, March 17, 2006 /9"Pittsburgh is the Galapagos Islands of American dialect")
* [https://www.pbs.org/speak/seatosea/americanvarieties/pittsburghese/ "American Varieties: Steel Town Speak"], part of PBS's ''Do You Speak American?''
* [https://guides.library.duq.edu/pittsburghese Pittsburghese: Welcome!], Duquesne University
* [http://www.pittsburghese.com/ Pittsburghese.com]

{{Pittsburgh}}
{{Yinz}}
{{Languages of Pennsylvania}}
{{Languages of the United States}}
{{English dialects by continent}}

<!-- spellfixno -->

[[Category:American English]]
[[Category:American slang]]
[[Category:City colloquials]]
[[Category:Culture of Pittsburgh]]
[[Category:Scotch-Irish American culture in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Working-class culture in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Languages of Pennsylvania]]