Western Pennsylvania English

File:Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (8483665838).jpg

A sign using "Dahntahn" to mean "Downtown" in Downtown Pittsburgh

Western Pennsylvania English, known more narrowly as Pittsburgh English or popularly as Pittsburghese, is a dialect of American English native primarily to the western half of Pennsylvania, centered on the city of Pittsburgh, but potentially appearing in some speakers as far north as Erie County, as far east as Harrisburg, as far south as Clarksburg, West Virginia, and as far west as Youngstown, Ohio.Template:Sfnp<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Commonly associated with the working class of Pittsburgh, users of the dialect are colloquially known as "Yinzers".

Overview

Scots-Irish, Pennsylvania Dutch, Polish,<ref name="DARE1">Template:Cite book</ref> Ukrainian<ref>Template:Cite news (based on 1990 US Census)</ref> and Croatian<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> immigrants to the area all provided certain loanwords to the dialect (see "Vocabulary" below). Many of the sounds and words found in the dialect are popularly thought to be unique to Pittsburgh, but that is a misconception since the dialect resides throughout the greater part of western Pennsylvania and the surrounding areas.<ref name="johnstone2">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="johnstone3">Template:Cite journal</ref> Central Pennsylvania, currently an intersection of several dialect regions, was identified in 1949 by Hans Kurath as a subregion between western and eastern Pennsylvania,<ref name="Kurath1949">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Salvucci 1999">Template:Cite web</ref> but some scholars in the 20th century onwards have identified it within the western Pennsylvania dialect region.<ref name="Salvucci 1999" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Since Kurath's study, one of western Pennsylvania's defining features, the cot–caught merger, has expanded into central Pennsylvania,Template:Sfnp moving eastward until being blocked at Harrisburg.Template:Sfnp Perhaps the only feature whose distribution is restricted almost exclusively to the immediate vicinity of Pittsburgh is Template:IPA monophthongization in which words such as house, down, found, and sauerkraut are sometimes pronounced with an "ah" sound, instead of the more standard pronunciation of "ow", rendering eye spellings such as hahs, dahn, fahnd, and sahrkraht.

Speakers of Pittsburgh English are sometimes called "Yinzers" in reference to their use of the second-person plural pronoun "yinz." The word "yinzer" is sometimes heard as pejorative, indicating a lack of sophistication, but the term is now used in a variety of ways.<ref name=johnstone1>Template:Cite conference</ref> Older men are more likely to use the accent than women "possibly because of a stronger interest in displaying local identity...."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Phonology

Vowels of Western Pennsylvania English

	Front		Central	Back
	Template:Small	Template:Small	Template:Small	Template:Small	Template:Small
Close	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Mid	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link
Open	Template:IPA link			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Diphthongs	Template:IPA

A defining feature of Western Pennsylvania English is the cot–caught merger, in which Template:IPA (as in ah) and Template:IPA (as in aw) merge to a rounded Template:IPA (phonetically Template:IPA). As in most other American dialects, the father–bother merger also occurs.<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=gagnon>Template:Cite book</ref> Therefore, cot and caught are both pronounced Template:IPA; Don and dawn are both Template:IPA. While the merger of the low back vowels is also widespread elsewhere in the United States, the rounded realizations of the merged vowel around Template:IPA is less common, except in Canada, California and Northeastern New England.<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/>

Template:IPA has a stylistic variant, which is open central unrounded Template:IPAblink, as in the sarcastic pronunciation of I apologize as Template:IPA. It may also occur before Template:IPA, as in start Template:IPA or car Template:IPA, but a more common pronunciation is back and rounded: Template:IPA etc. The vowel in hoarse is the same as the one in horse, phonetically Template:IPAblink: Template:IPA but phonemically Template:IPA due to the cot-caught merger: Template:IPA.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Template:IPA is backer and more open than Template:IPAblink found in Midland American English, being closer to Template:IPAblink. This makes Template:Sc2 an unrounded counterpart of Template:Sc2, with pairs such as nut Template:IPA vs. not Template:IPA or cut Template:IPA vs. cot Template:IPA contrasting mainly by roundedness. This is also found in contemporary Standard Southern British English, where nut Template:IPA also differs from not Template:IPA by rounding (though nought has a contrastive Template:Sc2 vowel instead: Template:IPA, which falls together with Template:IPAblink in Pittsburgh). Earlier reports give Template:IPAblink as the norm for Template:Sc2 in Pittsburgh. The remaining checked vowels Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA and Template:IPA are all within the General American norm.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

The Template:Sc2 vowel often has an unrounded central or fronted starting point in Pittsburgh: Template:IPA. Outside of the city itself, Template:IPA is more common. Template:Sc2 is sometimes also fronted, to Template:IPA (more usual value: Template:IPA). As in other American dialects, Template:Sc2 and Template:Sc2 are narrow diphthongs Template:IPA. Template:Sc2 is also within GenAm norm: Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp

The Template:Sc2 vowel alone undergoes Canadian raising to Template:IPA before voiceless consonants, as in ice Template:IPA. In 1971, the Journal of the International Phonetic Association published a description of the dialect, whose author Bruce Lee Johnson notes that the auxiliary verb might is typically pronounced with nasalization, as Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp Elsewhere in the article, this allophone is transcribed Template:Angbr IPA, following its usual transcription on Wikipedia.

The Template:Sc2 vowel typically begins front in the mouth Template:IPA. A less common variant has a central starting point, Template:IPA, matching the starting point of Template:Sc2 (Template:IPA).Template:Sfnp It is monophthongized to Template:IPA in some environments (sounding instead like ah), namely: before nasal consonants (downtown Template:IPA and found Template:IPA), liquid consonants (fowl, hour) and obstruents (house Template:IPA, out, cloudy).<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=gagnon/> The monophthongization does not occur, however, in word-final positions (how, now), and the diphthong then remains Template:IPA.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> That is one of the few features, if not the only one, restricted almost exclusively to western Pennsylvania in North America, but it can sometimes be found in other accents of the English-speaking world, such as Cockney and South African English.<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/> The sound may be the result of contact from Slavic languages during the early 20th century.<ref name=johnstone3/> Monophthongization also occurs for the sound Template:IPA, as in eye, before liquid consonants,<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=gagnon/><ref name=hankey1>Template:Cite journal</ref> so that tile is pronounced Template:IPA; pile is pronounced Template:IPA; and iron is pronounced Template:IPA. That phenomenon allows tire to merge with the sound of tar: Template:IPA.

The Template:Sc2 vowel (phonemically an Template:IPA sequence) is phonetically close-mid Template:IPAblink.Template:Sfnp

Johnson notes a tendency to diphthongize Template:IPA to Template:IPA not only before nasals (as in GenAm) but also before all voiced consonants (as in bad Template:IPA) and voiceless fricatives (as in grass Template:IPA).Template:Sfnp This has since been reversed and now Template:IPA is confined to the environment of a following nasal, matching the GenAm allophony.Template:Sfnp

An epenthetic (intruding) Template:IPA sound may occur after vowels in a few words, such as water pronounced as Template:IPA, and wash as Template:IPA.<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/>

A number of vowel mergers occur uniquely in Western Pennsylvania English before the consonant Template:IPA. The pair of vowels Template:IPA and Template:IPA may merge before the Template:IPA consonant,<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=gagnon/>Template:Sfnp cause both steel and still to be pronounced as something like Template:IPA. Similarly, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA may merge before Template:IPA, so that pool, pull, and pole may merge to something like Template:IPA. On the Template:IPA merger, Labov, Ash and Boberg (2006) note "the stereotype of merger of Template:IPA is based only on a close approximation of some forms, and does not represent the underlying norms of the dialect."Template:Sfnp The Template:IPA merger is found in western Pennsylvania,<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=gagnon/>Template:Sfnp as well as parts of the southern United States, including Alabama, Texas and the west (McElhinny 1999). On the other hand, the Template:IPA merger is consistently found only in western Pennsylvania. The Template:IPA merger towards Template:IPA may also appear before Template:IPA: eagle then sounds to outsiders like iggle.<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=gagnon/>

L-vocalization is also common in the Western Pennsylvania dialect; an Template:IPA then sounds like a Template:IPA or a cross between a vowel and a "dark" Template:IPA at the end of a syllable.<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=hankey2>Template:Cite book</ref> For example, well is pronounced as Template:IPA; milk as Template:IPA or Template:IPA; role as Template:IPA; and cold as Template:IPA. The phenomenon is also common in African-American English.

The word mirror can be pronounced as the single-syllable mere.Template:Cn

Western Pennsylvania English speakers may use falling intonation at the end of questions,<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=fasold>Template:Cite journal</ref> for example, in "Are you painting your garage?" Template:IPA (with pitch rising in intonation up to just before the last syllable and then falling precipitously).<ref name=fasold/> Such speakers typically use falling pitch for yes–no questions for which they already are quite sure of the answer. A speaker uttering the above example is simply confirming what is already thought: yes, the person spoken to is painting their garage. It is most common in areas of heavy German settlement, especially southeastern Pennsylvania,<ref name=fasold/> hence its nickname, the "Pennsylvania Dutch question", but it is also found elsewhere in Pennsylvania, including Pittsburgh.<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=fasold/>Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp It is of German origin.<ref name=fasold/>

Vocabulary

File:Redd-Up - City of Pittsburgh Recycling Drop-Off Center Sign.jpg

City of Pittsburgh Recycling Drop-Off Center sign using the term "redd up", illustrating an example of Western Pennsylvania English.

• babushka - (n.) headscarf<ref name=DARE1/>Template:Efn
• buggy - (n.) shopping cartTemplate:Efn
  • baby buggy - (n.) baby carriage
• the 'Burgh - (n.) Pittsburgh<ref name=johnstone3/>Template:Sfnp
• beal - (v.) to fester or suppurate<ref name=DARE1/>
• bealed - (adj.) usually of an ear: infected or abscessed<ref name=DARE1/>
• belling - (n.) noisy celebration or mock serenade for newlyweds; a shivaree<ref name="DARE1"/>
• berm - (n.) edge of the road, curb: an accepted alternative to "shoulder of the road"<ref name="DARE1"/>
• carbon oil - (n.) keroseneTemplate:Efn
• chipped ham - (n.) very thinly sliced chopped ham loaf for sandwiches (from a local brand name)<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/> (see chipped chopped ham)
• city chicken - (n.) cubes of pork loin and/or veal on a short wooden skewer, breaded, then fried or baked<ref name="Pittsburgh">Template:Citation</ref>Template:Efn
• cubberd - (n.) closet<ref name="johnstone4">Template:Cite book</ref>
• craw - (n.) crawfish<ref name="DARE1"/>
• crick - (n.) Creek
• cruds, crudded milk, or cruddled milk - (n.) cottage cheese<ref name=crozier>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn
• diamond - (n.) town square<ref name="johnstone4"/>
• dippy - (adj.) appropriate for dipping into, such as gravy, coffee, egg yolks, etc.<ref name=DARE2>Template:Cite book</ref>
• doll baby - (n.) complimentary term for an attractively childlike girl or woman (reversal of "baby doll")
• drooth - (n.) drought<ref name=DARE1/><ref name ="johnstone5">Template:Cite book</ref>
• Dubbya - (n.) Letter "W", Often used when saying "www." Or a local station
• dupa - (n.) parental term (of Polish origin) for a child's backside
• feature - (v.) to think about, understand, or imagine
• grinnie - (n.) chipmunkTemplate:Efn
• gumband - (n.) rubber band;<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=DARE2/> elastic fastener<ref name=johnstone4/>
• gutchies; or undergutchies (n.) term used to describe undergarments of any variety.
• hap - (n.) comfort; or, comforter or quilt:<ref name=crozier/>Template:Efn
• hoagie - (n.) a sub (i.e., submarine sandwich; used throughout Pennsylvania)<ref name=DARE2/>
• hoopy - (n.) a person perceived as unsophisticated or having rural sensibilities (i.e., redneck or hillbilly; used especially in Ohio Valley and northern West Virginia)
• jag - (v.) to prick, stab, or jab;<ref name=DARE3>Template:Cite book</ref> to teaseTemplate:Sfnp (often, jag off or jag around)Template:Efn<ref name=DARE3/>
  • jagger - (n./adj.) any small, sharp-pointed object or implement,<ref name=DARE3/> usually thorns, spines, and prickles (as in a jagger bush or "I got a jagger in my finger").
  • jaggerbush - (n.) briar<ref name="johnstone4"/>
  • jagoff - (n.) an idiot, fool, or unlikeable personTemplate:Efn
• jimmies - (n.) sprinkles<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
• jumbo - (n.) bologna lunch meat<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=DARE3/>Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
• "Kennywood's open" - idiom used to inform someone that their fly is open ("Kennywood" referring to the Kennywood amusement park in West Mifflin, Pennsylvania)
• Klondike - (n.) any ice cream bar, even if not specifically a Klondike bar (first marketed in nearby Youngstown, Ohio).<ref name="johnstone4"/>
• Template:Lang or Template:Lang - (n.) variant pronunciation of kielbasa<ref name=DARE3/> (Template:IPA)Template:Efn
• monkey ball - (n.) fruit of the Maclura pomifera or monkey ball tree<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
• n'at (Template:IPA) - et cetera; and so on; a "general extender";<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/> literally, a contraction of "and (all) that"<ref name="ReferenceA">McElhinny 1999; Wisnosky 2003; Johnstone, Andrus and Danielson 2006</ref>Template:Efn
• neb - (v.) to pry into a conversation or argument intrusively or impertinently<ref name=DARE3/> (this term and its derivatives are common to Pennsylvania, but especially southwestern Pennsylvania, from Scots-Irish English)
  • neb out - to mind one's own business
  • neb-nose or nebby-nose (also nebshit) - (n.) the kind of person who is always poking into people's affairs;<ref name=DARE3/> inquisitive person<ref name=johnstone4/>
  • nebby - (adj.) given to prying into the affairs of others; nosey;<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name="ReferenceA"/> inquisitive<ref name=johnstone4/>
• onion snow - (n.) early spring snow<ref name=johnstone4/>
• redd up (also ret, rid, ridd, or redd out) - (v.) to tidy up, clean up, or clean out (a room, house, cupboard, etc.); to clean house, tidy up (hence v bl. redding up house-cleaning; tidying up)<ref name=DARE4>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=dressman>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Also see McElhinny (1999); Johnstone, Andrus and Danielson (2006).</ref>Template:Efn<ref name="AHD">Template:Cite book</ref>
• reverend - (adj.) extreme;<ref name=johnstone4/> extraordinary, powerful<ref name=johnstone5/>
• slippy - (adj.) slippery (from Scots-Irish English)<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/>
• spicket - (n.) alternate pronunciation of spigot, specifically an outdoor faucet used to connect to a garden hose<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
• Squill - (n.) shortening of Squirrel Hill.
• Stillers - (n.) alternate pronunciation of the Pittsburgh Steelers<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
• sweep - (v.) to vacuum
• sweeper - (n.) vacuum cleaner (also used in Ohio and Indiana; from carpet sweeper)
• tossle cap - (n.) knit hat designed to provide warmth in cold weather
• trick - (n.) a job shift (as used in West-Central Pennsylvania)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
• yins, yinz, yunz, you'uns, or youns - (pronoun) plural of you (second-person personal plural pronoun from Scots-Irish English)<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=crozier/><ref>McElhinny 1999; Wisnosky 2003; Johnstone, Andrus and Danielson 2006: Used Southwestern Pennsylvania and elsewhere in Appalachia, yinz is a particularly salient feature of Pittsburgh speech</ref><ref name=johnstone1/><ref name="Marzec" /><ref>Montgomery 2001</ref>

Grammar

• All to mean all gone: When referring to consumable products, the word all has a secondary meaning: all gone. For example, the phrase the butter's all would be understood as "the butter is all gone." This likely derives from German.<ref name="Metcalf2000">Template:Cite book</ref>
• "Positive anymore": In addition to the normal negative use of anymore it can also, as in the greater Midland U.S. dialect, be used in a positive sense to mean "these days" or "nowadays".Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp An example is "I wear these shoes a lot anymore". While in Standard English anymore must be used as a negative polarity item (NPI), some speakers in Pittsburgh and throughout the Midland area do not have this restriction.<ref name="Marzec">Template:Cite book</ref> This is somewhat common in both the Midland regions (Montgomery 1989) and in northern Maryland (Frederick, Hagerstown, and Westminster), likely of Scots-Irish origin.Template:Sfnp
• Reversed usage of leave and let:<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref name=Adams>Template:Cite journal</ref> Examples of this include "Leave him go outside" and "Let the book on the table". Leave is used in some contexts in which, in standard English, let would be used; and vice versa. Used in Southwestern Pennsylvania and elsewhere, this is either Pennsylvania Dutch or Scots-Irish.<ref name=Adams/>
• "Need, want, or like + past participle":<ref name=johnstone2/><ref name=johnstone3/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Examples of this include "The car needs washed", "The cat wants petted", and "Babies like cuddled". More common constructions are "The grass needs cutting" or "The grass needs to be cut" or "Babies like cuddling" or "Babies like to be cuddled"; "The car needs washing" or "The car needs to be washed"; and "The cat wants petting" or "The cat wants to be petted." Found predominantly in the North Midland region, this is especially common in southwestern Pennsylvania.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Need + past participle is the most common construction, followed by want + past participle, and then like + past participle. The forms are "implicationally related" to one another (Murray and Simon 2002). This means the existence of a less common construction from the list in a given location entails the existence of the more common ones there, but not vice versa. The constructions "like + past participle" and "need + past participle" are Scots-Irish.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp While Adams argues that "want + past participle" could be from Scots-Irish or German,<ref name=Adams/> it seems likely that this construction is Scots-Irish, as Murray and Simon claim.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp like and need + past participle are Scots-Irish, the distributions of all three constructions are implicationally related, the area where they are predominantly found is most heavily influenced by Scots-Irish, and a related construction, "want + directional adverb", as in "The cat wants out", is Scots-Irish.<ref name=crozier/><ref name="Marzec" />
• "Punctual whenever": "Whenever" is often used to mean "at the time that."Template:Sfnp An example is "My mother, whenever she passed away, she had pneumonia." A punctual descriptor refers to the use of the word for "a onetime momentary event rather than in its two common uses for a recurrent event or a conditional one". This Scots-Irish usage is found in the Midlands and the South.

Notable lifelong speakers

• Kurt Angle
• Myron Cope<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> – Cope's colorful vocabulary added dozens of words to the dialect, including his most famous, "Yoi!"
• Billy Gardell<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>  – Although he grew up some of the time away from the city, Gardell sports a heavy Pittsburgh accent.
• John Kasich<ref>Template:Cite interview</ref>
• Michael Keaton
• Billy Mays<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
• Pat McAfee
• Arnold Palmer<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
• Trent Reznor
• Fred Rogers<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>  – Rogers' accent is an example of the softer variation of the accent that was spoken by the middle class of the era that he grew up in.
• Art Rooney
• Dan Rooney

See also

• Jagoff
• Midland American English
• Pennsylvania Dutch English
• Philadelphia accent
• Pittsburgh Dad
• Regional vocabularies of American English
• Yinztagram

Bibliography

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Further reading

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External links

• Pittsburgh Speech & Society, University of Pittsburgh
• "It's Not the Sights, It's the Sounds", New York Times article, March 17, 2006 /9"Pittsburgh is the Galapagos Islands of American dialect")
• "American Varieties: Steel Town Speak", part of PBS's Do You Speak American?
• Pittsburghese: Welcome!, Duquesne University
• Pittsburghese.com