Editing Chinese units of measurement

{{Short description|Traditional system of measurement used by Han Chinese}}
{{about|Chinese units of measurement as generally used in [[mainland China]]|local modifications of it|Taiwanese units of measurement|and|Hong Kong units of measurement|and|Singaporean units of measurement}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|pic=Classicchineseinstrumentscale.jpg |piccap=A traditional Chinese scale
|c={{linktext|市制}} |p=shìzhì |w=shih-chih |l={{nowrap|market system}}
|c2=市用制 |p2=shìyòngzhì |w2=shih-yung-chih |l2={{nowrap|market-use system}}       
}}
'''Chinese units of measurement''', known in Chinese as the '''''shìzhì''''' ("market system"), are the traditional [[units of measurement]] of the [[Han Chinese]]. Although [[Chinese numerals]] have been [[decimal]] (base-10) since the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]], several Chinese measures use [[hexadecimal]] (base-16).{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} Local applications have varied, but the [[Chinese dynasties]] usually proclaimed standard measurements and recorded their predecessor's systems in [[Chinese dynastic histories|their histories]].

In the present day, the [[People's Republic of China]] maintains some customary units based upon the market units but standardized to round values in the [[metric system]], for example the common ''[[jin (mass)|jin]]'' or [[catty (unit)|catty]] of exactly 500{{nbsp}}[[gram (unit)|g]]. The Chinese name for most metric units is based on that of the closest traditional unit; when confusion might arise, the word "market" ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|市}}}}, ''shì'') is used to specify the traditional unit and "common" or "public" ({{lang|zh-hant|{{linktext|公}}}}, ''gōng'') is used for the metric value. [[Taiwan]], like [[Korean units|Korea]], saw [[Taiwanese units of measurement|its traditional units]] standardized to [[Japanese units of measurement|Japanese values]] and their conversion to a metric basis, such as the Taiwanese ''[[ping (unit)|ping]]'' of about 3.306{{nbsp}}m<sup>2</sup> based on the square ''[[Ken (unit)|ken]]''. The [[Hong Kong SAR]] continues to use [[Hong Kong units of measurement|its traditional units]], now legally defined based on a local equation with metric units. For instance, the Hong Kong catty is precisely {{val|604.78982|u=g}}.

Note: The names ''lí'' ({{lang|zh|釐}} or {{lang|zh|厘}}) and ''fēn'' ({{lang|zh-hant|分}}) for small units are the same for length, area, and mass; however, they refer to different kinds of measurements.

{{TOC limit}}

==History==
[[File:Bronze ruler. Han Dynasty 206 BCE to CE 220. Excavated in Zichang County. Shaanxi History Museum, Xi'an.jpg|thumb|Bronze ruler from the Han dynasty (206 BCE to CE 220); excavated in [[Zichang County]]; [[Shaanxi History Museum]], [[Xi'an]]]]
{{History of science and technology in China}}
According to the ''[[Liji]]'', the legendary [[Yellow Emperor]] created the first measurement units. The ''[[Xiao Erya]]'' and the ''[[Kongzi Jiayu]]'' state that length units were derived from the human body. According to the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', these human body units caused inconsistency, and [[Yu the Great]], another legendary figure, unified the length measurements. [[Ruler]]s with decimal units have been unearthed from [[Shang dynasty]] tombs.

In the [[Zhou dynasty]], the king conferred nobles with powers of the state and the measurement units began to be inconsistent from state to state. After the [[Warring States period]], [[Qin Shi Huang]] unified China, and later standardized measurement units. In the [[Han dynasty]], these measurements were still being used, and were documented systematically in the [[Book of Han]].

Astronomical instruments show little change of the length of chi in the following centuries, since the calendar needed to be consistent. It was not until the introduction of decimal units in the [[Ming dynasty]] that the traditional system was revised.

===Republican Era===
{{see also|Taiwanese units of measurement}}
On 7 January 1915, the [[Beiyang government]] promulgated a measurement law to use not only metric system as the standard but also a set of Chinese-style measurement based directly on the [[Qing dynasty]] definitions ({{lang|zh|营造尺库平制}}).<ref name="ROC1915">{{citation |contribution-url=http://gaz.ncl.edu.tw/eng/detail.jsp?sysid=D1500002 |contribution=權度法 [''Quándù Fǎ''] |title=''政府公報 [''Zhèngfǔ Gōngbào'', ''Government Gazette'']'' |location=Beijing |volume=957 |publisher=Office of the President |date=7 January 1915 |pages=85–94 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. {{in lang|zh}}</ref>

On 16 February 1929, the [[Nationalist government]] adopted and promulgated ''The Weights and Measures Act''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://law.moj.gov.tw/Eng/LawClass/LawHistory.aspx?PCode=J0100052 |title=The Weights and Measures Act: Legislative History |publisher=[[Ministry of Justice (Republic of China)]]}}</ref> to adopt the [[metric system]] as the official standard and to limit the newer Chinese units of measurement ({{zh|c=市用制|p=shìyòngzhì|l=market-use system}}) to private sales and trade in Article 11, effective on 1 January 1930. These newer "market" units are based on rounded metric numbers.<ref name="ROC1930">{{Cite web|url=http://lis.ly.gov.tw/lghtml/lawstat/version2/01926/0192618020200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425025351/http://lis.ly.gov.tw/lghtml/lawstat/version2/01926/0192618020200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2014-04-25 |title=The Weights and Measures Act (1929) |publisher=[[Legislative Yuan]] }}</ref>

===People's Republic of China===
The [[Government of the People's Republic of China]] continued using the market system along with metric system, as decreed by the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China]] on 25 June 1959, but 1 [[catty]] being 500 grams, would become divided into 10 (new) [[tael]]s, instead of 16 (old) taels, to be converted from [[Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China|province to province]], while exempting [[Chinese herbology|Chinese prescription drugs]] from the conversion to prevent errors.<ref name="PRC1959">{{in lang|zh}} [http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2011-11/09/content_1988933.htm 1959 Gazette of the State Council of the People's Republic of China], [http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/shuju/1959/gwyb195916.pdf No. 180], pages 311 to 312</ref>

On 27 February 1984, the State Council of the People's Republic of China decreed the market system to remain acceptable until the end of 1990 and ordered the transition to the national legal measures by that time, but [[Agricultural land|farmland]] measures would be exempt from this mandatory [[metrication]] until further investigation and study.<ref name="PRC1984">[http://www.yfzs.gov.cn/gb/info/LawData/gjf2001q/gwyfg/2003-07/10/1425371513.html Decree of the State Council Concerning the Use of Uniform Legal Measures in the Country] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409152907/http://www.yfzs.gov.cn/gb/info/LawData/gjf2001q/gwyfg/2003-07/10/1425371513.html |date=2015-04-09 }}</ref>

===Hong Kong===
{{main|Hong Kong units of measurement}}
In 1976 the [[Hong Kong]] [[Metrication Ordinance]] allowed a gradual replacement of the system in favor of the [[International System of Units]] (SI) metric system.<ref>Yearbook HK. "[http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/1997/ch7/e7s.htm Yearbook]." ''Metrication.'' Retrieved on 26 April 2007.</ref> The Weights and Measures Ordinance defines the metric, Imperial, and Chinese units.<ref name="HK">[https://www.elegislation.gov.hk/hk/cap68 Cap. 68 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ORDINANCE]</ref> As of 2012, all three systems are legal for trade and are in widespread use.

===Macau===
On 24 August 1992, [[Macau]] published ''Law No. 14/92/M'' to order that Chinese units of measurement similar to those used in Hong Kong, [[Imperial units]], and [[United States customary units]] would be permissible for five years since the effective date of the Law, 1 January 1993, on the condition of indicating the corresponding SI values, then for three more years thereafter, Chinese, Imperial, and US units would be permissible as secondary to the SI.<ref name="MO">''Law No. 14/92/M'' ({{in lang|zh}} {{lang|zh|[http://bo.io.gov.mo/bo/i/92/34/lei14_cn.asp 第14/92/M號法律]}}; {{in lang|pt}} [http://bo.io.gov.mo/bo/i/92/34/lei14.asp Lei n.<sup>o</sup> 14/92/M])</ref>

== Ancient Chinese units ==
<!-- put all ancient values and units in here. Missing Ancient China weights, cubic measures and and lengths. -->

===Length===
[[File:Gilded Bronze Ruler - 1 chi = 231 cm. Western Han (206 BCE - CE 8). Hanzhong City.jpg|thumb|Gilded Bronze Ruler - 1 ''[[chi (length)|chi]]'' = 231 mm. [[Western Han]] (206 BCE–8 CE). [[Hanzhong City]]]]
Traditional units of length include the ''[[chi (unit)|chi]]'' ({{lang|zh|尺}}), ''bu'' ({{lang|zh|步}}), and ''[[li (length)|li]]'' ({{lang|zh|里}}). The precise length of these units, and the ratios between these units, has varied over time. 1 ''bu'' has consisted of either 5 or 6 ''chi'', while 1 ''li'' has consisted of 300 or 360 ''bu''.

{|class="wikitable"
|+Length in metres<ref>Schinz, 1996</ref>
|-
!rowspan="2"|dynasty
!rowspan="2"|chi
!colspan="2"|bu
!colspan="2"|li
|-
!= 5 chi
!= 6 chi
!= 300 bu
!= 360 bu
|-
|rowspan="2" valign="top"|[[Shang dynasty|Shang]] ({{Circa|1600|1045 BC}})
|0.1675
|
|1.0050
|301.50
|
|-
|0.1690
|
|1.0140
|304.20
|
|-
|[[Western Zhou]] ({{Circa|1045}}–771 BC)
|0.1990
|
|1.1940
|358.20
|
|-
|rowspan="3" valign="top"|[[Eastern Zhou]] ({{Circa|771}}–256 BC)
|0.2200
|
|1.3200
|396.00
|
|-
|0.2270
|
|1.3620
|408.60
|
|-
|0.2310
|
|1.3860
|415.80
|
|-
|[[Qin dynasty|Qin]] ({{Circa|221}}–206 BC)
|0.2260
|
|1.3560
|406.80<ref name="Schinz, p. 476">Schinz, p. 476.</ref> 415.80<ref name="Dubs 1938 pp. 276-280">Dubs (1938), pp. 276-280; (1955), p. 160, n. 7.</ref><ref name="Hulsewé 1961, pp. 206–207">Hulsewé (1961), pp. 206–207.</ref>
|
|-
|-
|rowspan="2" valign="top"|[[Han dynasty|Han]] ({{Circa|202 BC}}–9 AD; 25–220 AD) 
|0.2300
|
|1.3800
|414.00
|
|-
|0.2381
|
|1.4286
|415.80<ref>Hill (2015), "About the Measurements", pp. xxiii-xxiv.</ref> 415.80<ref name="Dubs 1938 pp. 276-280"/><ref name="Hulsewé 1961, pp. 206–207"/> 428.58 <ref name="Schinz, p. 476"/> 
|
|-

|[[Cao Wei|Wei]] - [[Sui dynasty|Sui]] ({{Circa|220}}–266 AD; 581 to 618 AD)
|0.2550
|
|1.5300
|459.00
|
|-
|rowspan="2" valign="top"|[[Tang dynasty|Tang]] ({{Circa|618}}–690 AD; 705–907 AD)
|0.2465
|1.2325
|
|369.75
|443.70
|-
|0.2955
|1.4775
|
|443.25
|531.90
|-
|[[Song dynasty|Song]] ({{Circa|960}}–1279 AD)
|0.2700
|1.3500
|
|405.00
|486.00
|-
|[[Northern Song (960–1127)|Northern Song]] ({{Circa|960}}–1127 AD)
|0.3080
|1.5400
|
|462.00
|554.40
|-
|[[Ming dynasty|Ming]] ({{Circa|1368}}–1644 AD)
|0.3008–0.3190
|1.5040–1.5950
|
|451.20–478.50
|541.44–574.20
|-
|[[Qing dynasty|Qing]] ({{Circa|1636}}–1912 AD)
|0.3080–0.3352
|1.5400–1.6760
|
|462.00–503.89
|554.40–603.46
|-
|}

== Modern Chinese units ==
All "metric values" given in the tables are exact unless otherwise specified by the approximation sign '~'.

Certain units are also listed at [[List of Chinese classifiers#Measurement units|List of Chinese classifiers → Measurement units]].
[[File:ROC1915-01-06--01-16政府公報956--965.pdf|page=85|thumb|Chinese measurement law in 1915]]

=== Length ===

====Chinese length units promulgated in 1915====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese length units promulgated in 1915<ref name="ROC1915" />
!Pinyin
!Character
!Relative value
!Metric value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
|align=center|''[[hao (length)|háo]] ''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|毫}}
|align=right|{{frac|{{val|10000}}}}
|align=right|32&nbsp;μm
|align=right|{{val|0.00126|u=in}}
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''[[li (short)|lí]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|釐}} (T) or {{lang|zh|厘}} (S)
|align=right|{{frac|1000}}
|align=right|0.32&nbsp;mm
|align=right|0.0126 in
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''[[Fen (length)|fēn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|分}}
|align=right|{{frac|100}}
|align=right|3.2&nbsp;mm
|align=right|0.126 in
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''[[Cun (unit)|cùn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|寸}}
|align=right|{{frac|10}}
|align=right|32&nbsp;mm
|align=right|1.26 in
|align=left|Chinese inch
|-
|align=center|''[[Chi (length)|chǐ]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|尺}}
|align=right|1
|align=right|0.32&nbsp;m
|align=right|12.6 in
|align=left|Chinese foot
|-
|align=center|''bù''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|步}}
|align=right|5
|align=right|1.6&nbsp;m
|align=right|5.2&nbsp;ft
|align=left|Chinese pace
|-
|align=center|''[[zhàng]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|丈}}
|align=right|10
|align=right|3.2&nbsp;m
|align=right|3.50 yd
|align=left|Chinese yard
|-
|align=center|''yǐn''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|引}}
|align=right|100
|align=right|32&nbsp;m
|align=right|35.0 yd
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''[[li (Chinese unit)|lǐ]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|里}}
|align=right|1800
|align=right|576&nbsp;m
|align=right|630 yd
|align=left|Chinese mile, this ''li'' is not the small ''li'' above,<br /> which has a different [[Chinese character|character]] and [[tone (tonal language)|tone]]
|}

====Chinese length units effective in 1930====
[[File:ROC1929-02-20國民政府公報97.pdf|thumb|Chinese measurement law in 1929, effective 1 January 1930]]
[[File:Chinese-measuring-tape.jpg|thumb|Chinese measuring tape]]

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese length units effective in 1930<ref name="ROC1930" />
!Pinyin
!Character
!Relative value
!Metric value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
|align=center|''[[hao (length) |háo]] ''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|毫}}
|align=right|{{frac|10 000}}
|align=right|{{frac|33|1|3}}&nbsp;μm
|align=right|{{val|0.00131|u=in}}
|align=left|Chinese mil
|-
|align=center|''[[li (short) |lí]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|釐}} (T) or {{lang|zh|厘}} (S)
|align=right|{{frac|1000}}
|align=right|{{frac|3}}&nbsp;mm
|align=right|0.0131 in
|align=left|Chinese calibre
|-
|align=center|''[[Fen (length)|fēn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|市分}}
|align=right|{{frac|100}}
|align=right|{{frac|3|1|3}}&nbsp;mm
|align=right|0.1312 in
|align=left|Chinese line
|-
|align=center|''[[Cun (unit)|cùn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市寸}}
|align=right|{{frac|10}}
|align=right|{{frac|3|1|3}}&nbsp;cm
|align=right|1.312 in
|align=left|Chinese inch
|-
|align=center|''[[Chi (length)|chǐ]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市尺}}
|align=right|1
|align=right|{{frac|33|1|3}}&nbsp;cm
|align=right|13.12 in
|align=left|Chinese foot
|-
|align=center|''[[zhàng]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市丈}}
|align=right|10
|align=right|{{frac|3|1|3}}&nbsp;m
|align=right|3.645 yd
|align=left|Chinese yard
|-
|align=center|''yǐn''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|引}}
|align=right|100
|align=right|{{frac|33|1|3}}&nbsp;m
|align=right|36.45 yd
|align=left|Chinese chain
|-
|align=center|''[[li (Chinese unit)|lǐ]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市里}}
|align=right|1500
|align=right|500 m
|align=right|546.8 yd
|align=left|Chinese mile, this ''li'' is not the small ''li'' above,<br /> which has a different [[Chinese character|character]] and [[tone (tonal language)|tone]]
|}

====Metric length units====
The Chinese word for [[metre]] is {{lang|zh|米}} ''mǐ''; this can take the [[Chinese numerals#SI prefixes|Chinese standard SI prefixes]] (for "kilo-", "centi-", etc.). A [[kilometre]], however, may also be called {{lang|zh|公里}} ''gōnglǐ'', i.e. a metric ''[[li (Chinese unit)|lǐ]]''.

In the engineering field, traditional units are rounded up to metric units. For example, the Chinese word {{lang|zh|絲}} (T) or {{lang|zh|丝}} (S) ''sī'' is used to express 0.01&nbsp;mm.
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese length units in engineering
!Pinyin
!Character
!Relative value
!Metric value
!Imperial value 
!Notes
|-align=right
|align=center|''hū''
|{{lang|zh|忽}}||{{frac|{{val|1000000}}}}||1&nbsp;μm||
|align=left|Authorized name: {{lang|zh|微米}}
|-align=right
|align=center|''[[Si (length)|sī]]''
|{{lang|zh|絲}} (T) or {{lang|zh|丝}} (S)||{{frac|{{val|100000}}}}||10&nbsp;μm||
|align=left|Authorized name: {{lang|zh|忽米}}
|-align=right
|align=center|''[[hao (length) |háo]]''
|{{lang|zh|毫}}||{{frac|{{val|10000}}}}||100&nbsp;μm||
|align=left|Authorized name: {{lang|zh|絲米}} (T) or {{lang|zh|丝米}} (S)
|-align=right
|align=center|''[[li (short) |lí]]''
|{{lang|zh|釐}} (T) or {{lang|zh|厘}} (S)||{{frac|1000}}||1&nbsp;mm||
|align=left|Authorized name: {{lang|zh|毫米}}
|-align=right
|align=center|''[[fen (length)|fēn]]''
|{{lang|zh|公分}}||{{frac|100}}||10&nbsp;mm||
|align=left|Authorized name: {{lang|zh|釐米}}(T) or {{lang|zh|厘米}}(S)
|-align=right
|align=center|''[[Cun (unit)|cùn]]''
|{{lang|zh|公寸}}||{{frac|10}}||100&nbsp;mm||
|align=left|Authorized name: {{lang|zh|分米}}
|-align=right
|align=center|''[[Chi (length)|chǐ]]''
|{{lang|zh|公尺}}||1||1&nbsp;m||
|align=left|Authorized name: {{lang|zh|米}}
|-align=right
|align=center|''[[Zhàng]]''
|{{lang|zh|公丈}}||10||10&nbsp;m||
|align=left|Authorized name: {{lang|zh|十米}}
|-align=right
|align=center|''yǐn''
|{{lang|zh|公引}}||100||100&nbsp;m||
|align=left|Authorized name: {{lang|zh|百米}}
|-align=right
|align=center|''[[li (Chinese unit)|lǐ]]''
|{{lang|zh|公里}}||1000||1000&nbsp;m||
|align=left|this ''li'' is not the small ''li'' above,<br /> which has a different [[Chinese character|character]] and [[tone (tonal language)|tone]]
|}

==== Hong Kong and Macau length units ====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese length units in Hong Kong<ref name="HK" /> and Macau<ref name="MO" />
![[Jyutping]]
!Character
!English
!Portuguese
!Relative value
!Metric value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
| align="center" |''[[Fen (length)|fan1]]''
| align="right" |{{lang|zh-hant|分}}
| align="center" |''fan''
|align=left|condorim
|align=right|{{frac|100}}
|align=right|{{val|3.71475|u=mm}}
|align=right|0.1463 in
|align=right|
|-
| align="center" |''[[Cun (unit)|cyun3]]''
| align="right" |{{lang|zh|寸}}
| align="center" |''[[Cun (unit)|tsun]]''
|align=left|ponto
|align=right|{{frac|10}}
|align=right|{{val|37.1475|u=mm}}
|align=right|1.463 in
|align=right|Hong Kong and Macau inch
|-
| align="center" |''[[Chi (unit) |cek3]]''
| align="right" |{{lang|zh|尺}}
| align="center" |''[[chi (length)|chek]]''
|align=left|côvado
|align=right|1
|align=right|{{val|371.475|u=mm}}
|align=right|1.219&nbsp;ft
|align=left|Hong Kong and Macau foot
|}

These correspond to the measures listed simply as "China" in ''The Measures, Weights, & Moneys of All Nations''
<ref>{{citation
|author = W. S. B. Woolhouse
|author-link = Wesley S. B. Woolhouse
|title = The Measures, Weights, & Moneys of All Nations (And an Analysis of the Christian, Hebrew, and Mahometan Calendars)
|year=1859
|publisher = J. Weale
|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4252729;view=1up;seq=71
}}</ref>

=== Area ===<!-- This section is linked from [[Hectare]] -->

====Chinese area units promulgated in 1915====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese area units promulgated in 1915<ref name="ROC1915" />
!Pinyin
!Character
!Relative value
!Metric value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
|align=center|''háo''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|毫}}
|align=right|{{frac|1000}}
|align=left|0.6144 m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|0.7348 sq yd
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''lí''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|釐}} (T) or {{lang|zh|厘}} (S)
|align=right|{{frac|100}}
|align=left|6.144 m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|7.348 sq yd
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''fēn''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|分}}
|align=right|{{frac|10}}
|align=left|61.44 m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|73.48 sq yd
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|[[Mu (land)|''mǔ'']]
|align=right|{{lang|zh|畝}} (T) or {{lang|zh|亩}} (S)
|align=right|1
|align=left|614.4 m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|734.82 sq yd
|align=right|Chinese acre, or 60 square zhang
|-
|align=center|''qǐng''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|頃}} (T) or {{lang|zh|顷}} (S)
|align=right|100
|align=left|6.144 ha
|align=left|15.18 acre
|align=right|Chinese [[hide (unit)|hide]]
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese square units effective in 1915<ref name="ROC1915" />
|-
!Pinyin
!Character
!Relative value
!Metric value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
|align=center|''fāng cùn''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|方寸}}
|align=right|{{frac|100}}
|align=left|10.24&nbsp;cm{{sup|2}}
|align=left|1.587 sq in
|align=right|square cun
|-
|align=center|''fāng chǐ''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|方尺}}
|align=right|1
|align=left|0.1024&nbsp;m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|1.102 sq ft
|align=right|square chi
|-
|align=center|''fāng zhàng''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|方丈}}
|align=right|100
|align=left|10.24&nbsp;m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|110.2 sq ft
|align=right|square zhang
|}

====Chinese area units effective in 1930====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese area units effective in 1930<ref name="ROC1930" />
!Pinyin
!Character
!Relative value
!Metric value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
|align=center|''háo''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|毫}}
|align=right|{{frac|1000}}
|align=left|{{frac|2|3}} m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|7.18 sq ft
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''[[li (area)|lí]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|釐}} (T) or {{lang|zh|厘}} (S)
|align=right|{{frac|100}}
|align=left|{{frac|6|2|3}} m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|7.973 sq yd
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''[[fen (land)|fēn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|市分}}
|align=right|{{frac|10}}
|align=left|{{frac|66|2|3}} m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|79.73 sq yd
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|{{anchor|mu}}[[Mu (land)|''mǔ'']]
|align=right|{{lang|zh|畝}} (T) or {{lang|zh|亩}} (S)
|align=right|1
|align=left|{{frac|666|2|3}} m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|797.3 sq yd<br>0.1647 acre
|align=right|Chinese acre<br>6000 square chi per Article 5 of the 1930 Law (六千平方尺定為一畝)<br>60 square zhang<br>1/15 of a hectare
|-
|align=center|''[[qing (area)|qǐng]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|頃}} (T) or {{lang|zh|顷}} (S)
|align=right|100
|align=left|{{frac|6|2|3}} ha
|align=left|16.47 acre
|align=right|Chinese [[hide (unit)|hide]]
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese square units effective in 1930<ref name="ROC1930" />
|-
!Pinyin
!Character
!Relative value
!Metric value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
|align=center|''fāng cùn''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|方寸}}
|align=right|{{frac|100}}
|align=left|{{frac|11|1|9}} cm{{sup|2}}
|align=left|1.722 sq in
|align=right|square cun
|-
|align=center|''fāng chǐ''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|方尺}}
|align=right|1
|align=left|{{frac|9}} m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|172.2 sq in<br>1.196 sq ft
|align=right|square chi
|-
|align=center|''fāng zhàng''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|方丈}}
|align=right|100
|align=left|{{frac|11|1|9}} m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|119.6 sq ft<br>13.29 sq yd
|align=right|square zhang
|}

====Metric and other area units====
Metric and other standard length units can be squared by the addition of the prefix {{lang|zh|平方}} ''píngfāng''. For example, a square kilometre is {{lang|zh-hant|平方公里}} ''píngfāng gōnglǐ''.

==== Macau area units ====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese area units in Macau<ref name="MO" />
![[Jyutping]]
!Portuguese
!Character
!Relative value
!Relation to the Traditional Chinese Units (Macau)
!Metric value
!Imperial value
|-
|align=center|''cek3''
| align="left" |côvado
| align="right" |{{lang|zh|尺}}
|align=right|{{frac|6000}}
| align="right" |{{frac|25}}{{lang|zh|鋪}}
| align="left" |0.1269&nbsp;m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|1.366 sq ft
|-
|align=center|''pou3''
| align="left" |
| align="right" |{{lang|zh|鋪}}
|align=right|{{frac|240}}
| align="right" |{{frac|4}}{{lang|zh|丈}}
| align="left" |3.1725&nbsp;m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|34.15 sq ft<br>3.794 sq yd
|-
|align=center|''zoeng6''
| align="left" |braça
| align="right" |{{lang|zh|丈}}
|align=right|{{frac|60}}
| align="right" |{{frac|6}}{{lang|zh-hant|分}}
| align="left" |12.69&nbsp;m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|136.6 sq ft<br>15.18 sq yd
|-
|align=center|[[Fen (land) |''fan1'']]
| align="left" |condorim
| align="right" |{{lang|zh-hant|分}}
|align=right|{{frac|10}}
| align="right" |{{frac|10}}{{lang|zh|畝}}
| align="left" |76.14&nbsp;m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|91.06 sq yd
|-
|align=center|[[Mu (land)|''mau5'']]
| align="left" |maz
| align="right" |{{lang|zh|畝}} (T) or {{lang|zh|亩}} (S)
|align=right|1
| align="right" |None
| align="left" |761.4&nbsp;m{{sup|2}}
|align=left|910.6 sq yd
|}

=== Volume ===
These units are used to measure cereal grains, among other things. In imperial times, the physical standard for these was the [[jialiang]].

====Chinese volume units promulgated in 1915====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese volume units effective in 1915<ref name="ROC1915" />
|-
!Pinyin
!Character
!Relative value
!Metric value
!US value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
|align=center|''sháo''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|勺}}
|align=right|{{frac|100}}
|align=left|{{val|10.354688|u=mL}}
|align=left|0.3501 fl oz
|align=left|0.3644 fl oz
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''[[Ge (unit) |gě]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|合}}
|align=right|{{frac|10}}
|align=left|{{val|103.54688|u=mL}}
|align=left|3.501 fl oz
|align=left|3.644 fl oz
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''[[sheng (volume)|shēng]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|升}}
|align=right|1
|align=left|{{val|1.0354688|ul=L}}
|align=left|2.188 pt
|align=left|1.822 pt
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''[[dou (volume)|dǒu]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|斗}}
|align=right|10
|align=left|{{val|10.354688|u=L}}
|align=left|2.735 gal
|align=left|2.278 gal
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''hú''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|斛}}
|align=right|50
|align=left|{{val|51.77344|u=L}}
|align=left|13.68 gal
|align=left|11.39 gal
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''[[dan (volume) |dàn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|石}}
|align=right|100
|align=left|{{val|103.54688|u=L}}
|align=left|27.35 gal
|align=left|22.78 gal
|align=right|
|}

====Chinese volume units effective in 1930====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese volume units effective in 1930<ref name="ROC1930" />
|-
!Pinyin
!Character
!Relative value
!Metric value
!US value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
|align=center|''[[cuo (volume) |cuō]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|撮}}
|align=right|{{frac|1000}}
|align=left|1 mL
|align=left|0.0338 fl oz
|align=left|0.0352 fl oz
|align=right|[[millilitre]]
|-
|align=center|''[[shao (volume) |sháo]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|勺}}
|align=right|{{frac|100}}
|align=left|10 mL
|align=left|0.3381 fl oz
|align=left|0.3520 fl oz
|align=right|[[centilitre]]
|-
|align=center|''[[ge (unit) |gě]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|合}}
|align=right|{{frac|10}}
|align=left|100 mL
|align=left|3.381 fl oz
|align=left|3.520 fl oz
|align=right|[[decilitre]]
|-
|align=center|''[[sheng (volume)|shēng]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市升}}
|align=right|1
|align=left|1 [[litre|L]]
|align=left|2.113 pt
|align=left|1.760 pt
|align=right|[[litre]]
|-
|align=center|''[[dou (volume) |dǒu]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市斗}}
|align=right|10
|align=left|10 L
|align=left|21.13 pt<br>2.64 gal
|align=left|17.60 pt<br>2.20 gal
|align=right|[[decalitre]]
|-
|align=center|''[[dan (volume) |dàn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市石}}
|align=right|100
|align=left|100 L
|align=left|26.41 gal
|align=left|22.0 gal
|align=right|[[hectolitre]]
|}

====Metric volume units====
In the case of volume, the market and metric ''shēng'' coincide, being equal to one litre as shown in the table. The [[Chinese numerals#SI prefixes|Chinese standard SI prefixes]] (for "milli-", "centi-", etc.) may be added to this word ''shēng''.

Units of volume can also be obtained from any standard unit of length using the prefix {{lang|zh|立方}} ''lìfāng'' ("cubic"), as in {{lang|zh-hant|立方米}} ''lìfāng mǐ'' for one cubic metre.

==== Macau volume units ====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese volume units in Macau<ref name="MO" />
![[Jyutping]]
!Character
!Relation to the Traditional Chinese Units (Macau)
!Metric value
|-
|align=center|''cyut3''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|撮}}
| align="right" |{{frac|10}}{{lang|zh-hant|甘特}} 
|align=right| 1.031&nbsp;L
|-
|align=center|''gam1 dak6''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|甘特}}
| align="right" |{{frac|10}}{{lang|zh|石}} 
|align=right| 10.31&nbsp;L
|-
|align=center|''[[dan (volume) |sek6]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|石}}
| align="right" |None
|align=right| 103.1&nbsp;L
|}

=== Mass ===<!-- This section is linked from [[Grand Canal of China]] -->
These units are used to measure the mass of objects. They are also famous for measuring monetary objects such as gold and silver.

====Chinese mass units promulgated in 1915====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese mass units promulgated in 1915<ref name="ROC1915" />
|-
!Pinyin
!Character
!Relative value
!Metric value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
|align=center|''háo''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|毫}}
|align=right|{{frac|{{val|10000}}}}
|align=right|3.7301&nbsp;mg
|align=right|0.0001316 oz
|align=right|
|-
|align=center|''[[li (mass)|lí]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|釐}}
|align=right|{{frac|1000}}
|align=right|37.301&nbsp;mg
|align=right|0.001316 oz
|align=left|[[Cash (mass)|cash]]
|-
|align=center|''[[fen (mass)|fēn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|分}}
|align=right|{{frac|100}}
|align=right|373.01&nbsp;mg
|align=right|0.01316 oz
|align=left|[[candareen]]
|-
|align=center|''[[qian (mass)|qián]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|錢}}
|align=right|{{frac|10}}
|align=right|3.7301 g
|align=right|0.1316 oz
|align=left|[[mace (measurement)|mace]] or Chinese [[dram (unit)|dram]]
|-
|align=center|''[[liang (mass)|liǎng]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|兩}}
|align=right|1
|align=right|37.301 g
|align=right|1.316 oz
|align=left|[[tael]] or Chinese [[ounce]]
|-
|align=center|''[[Jin (mass)|jīn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|斤}}
|align=right|16
|align=right|596.816 g
|align=right|1.316&nbsp;lb
|align=left|[[catty]] or Chinese [[pound (mass)|pound]]
|}

====Mass units in the Republic of China since 1930====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of mass units in the Republic of China since 1930<ref name="ROC1930" />
|-
!Pinyin
!Character
!Relative value
!Metric value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
|align=center|''sī''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|絲}}
|align=right|{{frac|{{val|1600000}}}}
|align=right|312.5&nbsp;μg
|align=right|{{val|0.00001102|u=oz}}
|align=left|
|-
|align=center|''háo''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|毫}}
|align=right|{{frac|{{val|160000}}}}
|align=right|3.125&nbsp;mg
|align=right|{{val|0.0001102|u=oz}}
|align=left|
|-
|align=center|''[[li (mass)|lí]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市釐}}
|align=right|{{frac|{{val|16000}}}}
|align=right|31.25&nbsp;mg
|align=right|{{val|0.001102|u=oz}}
|align=left|[[Cash (mass)|cash]]
|-
|align=center|''[[fen (mass)|fēn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|市分}}
|align=right|{{frac|1600}}
|align=right|312.5&nbsp;mg
|align=right|{{val|0.01102|u=oz}}
|align=left|[[candareen]]
|-
|align=center|''[[qian (mass)|qián]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市錢}}
|align=right|{{frac|160}}
|align=right|3.125 g
|align=right|0.1102 oz
|align=left|[[mace (measurement)|mace]] or Chinese [[dram (unit)|dram]]
|-
|align=center|''[[liang (mass)|liǎng]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|市兩}}
|align=right|{{frac|16}}
|align=right|31.25 g
|align=right|1.102 oz
|align=left|[[tael]] or Chinese [[ounce]]
|-
|align=center|''[[jin (mass)|jīn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市斤}}
|align=right|1
|align=right|500 g
|align=right|1.102&nbsp;lb
|align=left|[[catty]] or Chinese [[pound (mass)|pound]]
|-
|align=center|''[[dan (mass)|dàn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|擔}}
|align=right|100
|align=right|50&nbsp;kg
|align=right|110.2&nbsp;lb
|align=left|[[picul]] or Chinese [[hundredweight]]
|}

====Mass units in the People's Republic of China since 1959====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of mass units in the People's Republic of China since 1959<ref name="PRC1959" />
|-
!Pinyin
!Character<ref>{{in lang|zh}} [http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2011-11/09/content_1988933.htm 1959 Gazette of the State Council of the People's Republic of China], [http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/shuju/1959/gwyb195916.pdf No. 180], page 316</ref>
!Relative value
!Metric value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
|align=center|''[[li (mass)|lí]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市厘}}
|align=right|{{frac|{{val|10000}}}}
|align=right|50&nbsp;mg
|align=right|{{val|0.001764|u=oz}}
|align=left|[[Cash (mass)|cash]]
|-
|align=center|''[[fen (mass)|fēn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|市分}}
|align=right|{{frac|1000}}
|align=right|500&nbsp;mg
|align=right|{{val|0.01764|u=oz}}
|align=left|[[candareen]]
|-
|align=center|''[[qian (mass)|qián]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市錢}}
|align=right|{{frac|100}}
|align=right|5 g
|align=right|0.1764 oz
|align=left|[[mace (measurement)|mace]] or Chinese [[dram (unit)|dram]]
|-
|align=center|''[[liang (mass)|liǎng]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|市兩}}
|align=right|{{frac|10}}
|align=right|50 g
|align=right|1.764 oz
|align=left|[[tael]] or Chinese [[ounce]]
|-
|align=center|''[[jin (mass)|jīn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh|市斤}}
|align=right|1
|align=right|500 g
|align=right|1.102&nbsp;lb
|align=left|[[catty]] or Chinese [[pound (mass)|pound]]<br /> formerly 16 liang = 1 jin
|-
|align=center|''[[dan (mass)|dàn]]''
|align=right|{{lang|zh-hant|市擔}}
|align=right|100
|align=right|50&nbsp;kg
|align=right|110.2&nbsp;lb
|align=left|[[picul]] or Chinese [[hundredweight]]
|}

====Metric mass units====
The Chinese word for [[gram]] is {{lang|zh|克}} ''kè''; this can take the [[Chinese numerals#SI prefixes|Chinese standard SI prefixes]] (for "milli-", "deca-", and so on). A kilogram, however, is commonly called {{lang|zh-hant|公斤}} ''gōngjīn'', i.e. a metric ''[[catty|jīn]]''.

==== Hong Kong and Macau mass units ====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Chinese mass units in Hong Kong<ref name="HK" /> and Macau<ref name="MO" />
![[Jyutping]]
!Character
!English
!Portuguese
!Relative value
!Relation to the Traditional Chinese Units (Macau)
!Metric value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
| align="right" | ''lei4''
| align="right" | {{lang|zh|厘}}
| align="center" | ''[[li (mass)|li, cash]]''
|align=right| liz
|align=right| {{frac|{{val|16000}}}}
|{{frac|10}} condorim
| align="right" | {{val|37.79931|u=mg}}
|align=right| {{val|0.02133|u=dr}}
|align=left| Not defined in Hong Kong. Macanese definition may not be correct when dividing catty.
|-
| align="right" | ''fan1''
| align="right" | {{lang|zh-hant|分}}
| align="center" | ''[[fen (mass) |fen, fan, candareen]]''
|align=right| condorim
|align=right| {{frac|1600}}
|{{frac|10}} maz
| align="right" | {{val|377.9936375|u=mg}}
|align=right| 0.2133 dr
|align=left| Macanese definition of 377.9931&nbsp;mg may not be correct when dividing catty.
|-
| align="right" | ''cin4''
| align="right" | {{lang|zh|錢}}
| align="center" | ''[[qian (mass)|qian, tsin, mace]]'' 
|align=right| maz
|align=right| {{frac|160}}
|{{frac|10}} tael
| align="right" | {{val|3.779936375|u=g}}
|align=right| 2.1333&nbsp;dr
|align=left| Macanese definition of {{val|3.779931|u=g}} may not be correct when dividing catty.
|-
| align="right" | ''loeng2''
| align="right" | {{lang|zh-hant|兩}}
| align="center" | ''[[liang (mass)|liang, leung, tael]]'' 
|align=right| tael
|align=right| {{frac|16}}
|{{frac|16}} cate
| align="right" | {{val|37.79936375|u=g}}
|align=right| 1.3333&nbsp;oz
|align=left| Macanese definition of {{val|37.79931|u=g}} may not be correct when dividing catty.
|-
| align="right" | ''[[gan (mass) |gan1]]''
| align="right" | {{lang|zh|斤}}
| align="center" | ''[[jin (mass) |jin, kan, catty]]''
|align=right| cate
|align=right| 1
|{{frac|100}} pico
| align="right" | 604.78982&nbsp;g
|align=right| 1.3333&nbsp;lb
|align=left| Hong Kong and Macau share the definition.
|-
| align="right" | ''daam3''
| align="right" | {{lang|zh-hant|擔}}
| align="center" | ''[[dan (mass) |dan, tam, picul]]''
|align=right| pico
|align=right| 100
|None
| align="right" | 60.478982&nbsp;kg
|align=right| 133.3333&nbsp;lb
|align=left| Hong Kong and Macau share the definition.
|-
|
|
|Ding
|
|
|
|1000&nbsp;kg
|
|
|}

==== Hong Kong troy units ====
These are used for trading precious metals such as gold and silver.

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of mass (Hong Kong troy) units<ref name="HK" />
!English
!Character
!Relative value
!Metric value
!Imperial value
!Notes
|-
|align=center| ''[[fen (mass)|fen (candareen) troy]]''
|align=right| {{lang|zh-hant|金衡分}}
|align=right| {{frac|100}}
|align=right| 374.29&nbsp;mg
|align=right| 0.096 drt
|align=left| 
|-
|align=center |''[[qian (mass)|qian (mace) troy]]''
|align=right| {{lang|zh|金衡錢}}
|align=right| {{frac|10}}
|align=right| 3.7429 g
|align=right| 0.96 drt
|align=left| 
|-
|align=center| ''[[liang (mass)|liang (tael) troy]]''
|align=right| {{lang|zh-hant|金衡兩}}
|align=right| 1
|align=right| 37.429 g
|align=right| 1.2 ozt
|align=left| 
|}

=== Time ===
{{see also|Chinese calendar|Dates in Chinese|Traditional Chinese timekeeping}}
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of time units
!rowspan=2|Pinyin
!rowspan=2|Character
!colspan=2|Relative value
!colspan=2|Western value
!rowspan=2|Notes
|-
!Traditional value!!Modern value!!Traditional value!!Modern value
|-align=right
| ''miǎo''  || {{lang|zh|秒}}
||||| 144 [[millisecond]]s || 1 [[second]] ||
|-align=right
| ''fēn'' || {{lang|zh|分}}
|100 ''miǎo''||60 ''miǎo''||14.4 [[second]]s||1 [[minute]]||
|-align=right 
|rowspan=2| ''[[Traditional Chinese timekeeping|kè]]'' ||rowspan=2| {{lang|zh|刻}}
|1 minor kè = 10 fēn||rowspan=2|15 fēn||2 [[minute]]s 24 seconds||rowspan=2|15 [[minute]]s, 1 quarter
|rowspan=2 align=left|kè was defined at {{frac|96}}, {{frac|108}}, or {{frac|120}} day during the [[Liang dynasty]], and established at {{frac|96}} day after the [[Qing dynasty]].
|-align=right 
|1 major kè = 60 fēn||14 [[minute]]s 24 seconds
|-align=right
| ''diǎn'' || {{lang|zh|點}} (T)<br />{{lang|zh|点}} (S)
| 100 fēn || 60 fēn || 24 [[minute]]s || 1 [[hour]] ||
|-align=right 
|rowspan=2| ''shí''<ref>[[Nachum Dershowitz]], [[Edward M. Reingold]], ''"[[Calendrical calculations]]"'', page 207</ref>|| rowspan="2" | {{lang|zh-hant|時}} (T)<br />{{lang|zh|时}} (S)
|{{frac|8|1|3}} kè ||rowspan=2|4 kè||2 [[hour]]s||rowspan=2|1 [[hour]]
|rowspan=5 align=left| the '''xiǎoshí'''({{lang|zh-hant|小時}}, lit. minor shí) is currently a unit used to express "hour" in order to avoid ambiguity
|-align=right
|(pre-Qin) 10 kè||2 [[hour]]s 24 minutes
|-align=right
|rowspan=2| ''shíchén'' ||rowspan=2| {{lang|zh-hant|時辰}} (T)<br />{{lang|zh|时辰}} (S)
|{{frac|8|1|3}} kè ||rowspan=2| - ||2 [[hour]]s||rowspan=2| -
|-align=right
|(pre-Qin) 10 kè||2 [[hour]]s 24 minutes
|-align=right 
| ''xiǎoshí''  || {{lang|zh-hant|小時}} (T)<br />{{lang|zh|小时}} (S)
|| - ||| 60 fēn || - || 1 [[hour]]
|-align=right
| ''rì'' / ''tiān'' || {{lang|zh|日/天}}
|12 shíchén||24 xiǎoshí||colspan=2|24 [[hour]]s||align=left|1 [[day]]
|}

==Historiography==
As there were hundreds of unofficial measures in use, the bibliography is quite vast. The editions of Wu Chenglou's 1937 ''History of Chinese Measurement''<ref>{{citation |last=Wu |first=Chenglou |author-mask=吳承洛 |title=''《中國度量衡史》 [''Zhōngguó Dùliànghéng Shǐ'']'' |date=1937 }}, 2nd ed. in 1957, 3rd ed. in 1993. {{in lang|zh}}</ref> were the usual standard up to the 1980s or so, but rely mostly on surviving literary accounts. Newer research has put more emphasis on archeological discoveries.<ref name="Wilkinson2000"/> [[Qiu Guangming]] & Zhang Yanming's 2005 bilingual ''Concise History of Ancient Chinese Measures and Weights'' summarizes these findings.<ref>{{citation |last=Qiu |first=Guangming |author-link=Qiu Guangming |author-mask=丘光明 |editor-first=Yanming |editor-last=Zhang |editor-mask=张延明 |title=''《中国古代计量史图鉴》 [''Zhōngguó Gǔdài Jìliàng Shǐ Tújiàn'']'' |location=Hefei |publisher=Hefei University Press |date=2005 |isbn=7-81093-284-5 }}. {{in lang|zh}}{{nbsp}}& {{in lang|en}}</ref> A relatively recent and comprehensive bibliography, organized by period studied, has been compiled in 2012 by Cao & al.;<ref>{{citation |last=Cao |first=Jin |author-mask=Cao Jin |author2=Ulrich Theobald |author3=Hans Ulrich Vogel |author4=others |display-authors=1 |url=https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/handle/10900/47035 |title=Chinese, Japanese and Western Research in Chinese Historical Metrology: A Classified Bibliography (1925-2012) |publisher=Institute for Chinese and Korean Studies at the University of Tübingen |location=Tübingen |date=2012 }}.</ref> for a shorter list, see [[Endymion Wilkinson|Wilkinson]]'s year 2000 ''Chinese History''.<ref name="Wilkinson2000">{{citation |first=Endymion |last=Wilkinson |author-link=Endymion Wilkinson |title=Chinese History: A Manual |year=2000 |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]] |isbn=978-0-674-00249-4 |pages=244–245 |edition=2nd }}.</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Chinese numbers]] and [[Chinese classifier|classifiers]]
*[[Heavenly Stems]] and [[Earthly Branches]]
*[[Units of measurement|Units]], [[Systems of measurement|systems]], and [[history of measurement]]
*[[Taiwanese units|Taiwanese]] and [[Hong Kong units of measurement]]
*[[Japanese units|Japanese]], [[Korean units|Korean]], and [[Vietnamese units of measurement]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* Hill, John E. (2015) ''Through the Jade Gate - China to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes 1st to 2nd Centuries CE''. Vol. I. John E. Hill. CreateSpace, Charleston, South Carolina. {{ISBN|978-1-5006-9670-2}}.
* [[Homer H. Dubs]] (1938): ''The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku''. Vol. One. Translator and editor: Homer H. Dubs. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc.
* Homer H. Dubs (1955): ''The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku''. Vol. Three. Translator and editor: Homer H. Dubs. Ithaca, New York. Spoken Languages Services, Inc.
* Hulsewé, (1961). "Han measures." A. F. P. Hulsewé, ''T'oung pao Archives'', Vol. XLIX, Livre 3, pp.&nbsp;206–207.
* [http://www.chinesetools.eu/tools/unit-converter/ Chinese Measurement Converter] - Online Chinese / Metric / Imperial Converter
* [http://www.mandarintools.com/measures.html Chinese/Metric/Imperial Measurement Converter]
* {{cite book
|last = Schinz
|first = Alfred
|title = The magic square: cities in ancient China
|publisher = Edition Axel Menges
|year = 1996
|pages = 428
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qhcRYkz-I3YC
|isbn = 3-930698-02-1
}}
{{refend}}

{{Clear}}
{{systems of measurement}}
{{S&T in China}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese units of measurement}}
[[Category:Customary units of measurement]]
[[Category:Science and technology in China]]
[[Category:Chinese units in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Systems of units]]
[[Category:Units of measurement by country]]
[[Category:Standards of the People's Republic of China]]