Chinese units of measurement

Template:Short description Template:About Template:Infobox Chinese Chinese units of measurement, known in Chinese as the shìzhì ("market system"), are the traditional units of measurement of the Han Chinese. Although Chinese numerals have been decimal (base-10) since the Shang, several Chinese measures use hexadecimal (base-16).Template:Citation needed Local applications have varied, but the Chinese dynasties usually proclaimed standard measurements and recorded their predecessor's systems in their histories.

In the present day, the People's Republic of China maintains some customary units based upon the market units but standardized to round values in the metric system, for example the common jin or catty of exactly 500Template:Nbspg. The Chinese name for most metric units is based on that of the closest traditional unit; when confusion might arise, the word "market" (Template:Lang, shì) is used to specify the traditional unit and "common" or "public" (Template:Lang, gōng) is used for the metric value. Taiwan, like Korea, saw its traditional units standardized to Japanese values and their conversion to a metric basis, such as the Taiwanese ping of about 3.306Template:Nbspm² based on the square ken. The Hong Kong SAR continues to use its traditional units, now legally defined based on a local equation with metric units. For instance, the Hong Kong catty is precisely Template:Val.

Note: The names lí (Template:Lang or Template:Lang) and fēn (Template:Lang) for small units are the same for length, area, and mass; however, they refer to different kinds of measurements.

History

File:Bronze ruler. Han Dynasty 206 BCE to CE 220. Excavated in Zichang County. Shaanxi History Museum, Xi'an.jpg

Bronze ruler from the Han dynasty (206 BCE to CE 220); excavated in Zichang County; Shaanxi History Museum, Xi'an

Template:History of science and technology in China According to the Liji, the legendary Yellow Emperor created the first measurement units. The Xiao Erya and the Kongzi Jiayu state that length units were derived from the human body. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, these human body units caused inconsistency, and Yu the Great, another legendary figure, unified the length measurements. Rulers with decimal units have been unearthed from Shang dynasty tombs.

In the Zhou dynasty, the king conferred nobles with powers of the state and the measurement units began to be inconsistent from state to state. After the Warring States period, Qin Shi Huang unified China, and later standardized measurement units. In the Han dynasty, these measurements were still being used, and were documented systematically in the Book of Han.

Astronomical instruments show little change of the length of chi in the following centuries, since the calendar needed to be consistent. It was not until the introduction of decimal units in the Ming dynasty that the traditional system was revised.

Republican Era

Template:See also On 7 January 1915, the Beiyang government promulgated a measurement law to use not only metric system as the standard but also a set of Chinese-style measurement based directly on the Qing dynasty definitions (Template:Lang).<ref name="ROC1915">Template:CitationTemplate:Dead link. Template:In lang</ref>

On 16 February 1929, the Nationalist government adopted and promulgated The Weights and Measures Act<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> to adopt the metric system as the official standard and to limit the newer Chinese units of measurement (Template:Zh) to private sales and trade in Article 11, effective on 1 January 1930. These newer "market" units are based on rounded metric numbers.<ref name="ROC1930">Template:Cite web</ref>

People's Republic of China

The Government of the People's Republic of China continued using the market system along with metric system, as decreed by the State Council of the People's Republic of China on 25 June 1959, but 1 catty being 500 grams, would become divided into 10 (new) taels, instead of 16 (old) taels, to be converted from province to province, while exempting Chinese prescription drugs from the conversion to prevent errors.<ref name="PRC1959">Template:In lang 1959 Gazette of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, No. 180, pages 311 to 312</ref>

On 27 February 1984, the State Council of the People's Republic of China decreed the market system to remain acceptable until the end of 1990 and ordered the transition to the national legal measures by that time, but farmland measures would be exempt from this mandatory metrication until further investigation and study.<ref name="PRC1984">Decree of the State Council Concerning the Use of Uniform Legal Measures in the Country Template:Webarchive</ref>

Hong Kong

Template:Main In 1976 the Hong Kong Metrication Ordinance allowed a gradual replacement of the system in favor of the International System of Units (SI) metric system.<ref>Yearbook HK. "Yearbook." Metrication. Retrieved on 26 April 2007.</ref> The Weights and Measures Ordinance defines the metric, Imperial, and Chinese units.<ref name="HK">Cap. 68 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ORDINANCE</ref> As of 2012, all three systems are legal for trade and are in widespread use.

Macau

On 24 August 1992, Macau published Law No. 14/92/M to order that Chinese units of measurement similar to those used in Hong Kong, Imperial units, and United States customary units would be permissible for five years since the effective date of the Law, 1 January 1993, on the condition of indicating the corresponding SI values, then for three more years thereafter, Chinese, Imperial, and US units would be permissible as secondary to the SI.<ref name="MO">Law No. 14/92/M (Template:In lang Template:Lang; Template:In lang Lei n.^o 14/92/M)</ref>

Ancient Chinese units

Length

File:Gilded Bronze Ruler - 1 chi = 231 cm. Western Han (206 BCE - CE 8). Hanzhong City.jpg

Gilded Bronze Ruler - 1 chi = 231 mm. Western Han (206 BCE–8 CE). Hanzhong City

Traditional units of length include the chi (Template:Lang), bu (Template:Lang), and li (Template:Lang). The precise length of these units, and the ratios between these units, has varied over time. 1 bu has consisted of either 5 or 6 chi, while 1 li has consisted of 300 or 360 bu.

Length in metres<ref>Schinz, 1996</ref>

dynasty	chi	bu		li
		= 5 chi	= 6 chi	= 300 bu	= 360 bu
Shang (Template:Circa)	0.1675		1.0050	301.50
	0.1690		1.0140	304.20
Western Zhou (Template:Circa–771 BC)	0.1990		1.1940	358.20
Eastern Zhou (Template:Circa–256 BC)	0.2200		1.3200	396.00
	0.2270		1.3620	408.60
	0.2310		1.3860	415.80
Qin (Template:Circa–206 BC)	0.2260		1.3560	406.80<ref name="Schinz, p. 476">Schinz, p. 476.</ref> 415.80<ref name="Dubs 1938 pp. 276-280">Dubs (1938), pp. 276-280; (1955), p. 160, n. 7.</ref><ref name="Hulsewé 1961, pp. 206–207">Hulsewé (1961), pp. 206–207.</ref>
Han (Template:Circa–9 AD; 25–220 AD)	0.2300		1.3800	414.00
	0.2381		1.4286	415.80<ref>Hill (2015), "About the Measurements", pp. xxiii-xxiv.</ref> 415.80<ref name="Dubs 1938 pp. 276-280"/><ref name="Hulsewé 1961, pp. 206–207"/> 428.58 <ref name="Schinz, p. 476"/>
Wei - Sui (Template:Circa–266 AD; 581 to 618 AD)	0.2550		1.5300	459.00
Tang (Template:Circa–690 AD; 705–907 AD)	0.2465	1.2325		369.75	443.70
	0.2955	1.4775		443.25	531.90
Song (Template:Circa–1279 AD)	0.2700	1.3500		405.00	486.00
Northern Song (Template:Circa–1127 AD)	0.3080	1.5400		462.00	554.40
Ming (Template:Circa–1644 AD)	0.3008–0.3190	1.5040–1.5950		451.20–478.50	541.44–574.20
Qing (Template:Circa–1912 AD)	0.3080–0.3352	1.5400–1.6760		462.00–503.89	554.40–603.46

Modern Chinese units

All "metric values" given in the tables are exact unless otherwise specified by the approximation sign '~'.

Certain units are also listed at List of Chinese classifiers → Measurement units.

File:ROC1915-01-06--01-16政府公報956--965.pdf

Chinese measurement law in 1915

Length

Chinese length units promulgated in 1915

Table of Chinese length units promulgated in 1915<ref name="ROC1915" />

Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	32 μm	Template:Val
lí	Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S)	Template:Frac	0.32 mm	0.0126 in
fēn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	3.2 mm	0.126 in
cùn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	32 mm	1.26 in	Chinese inch
chǐ	Template:Lang	1	0.32 m	12.6 in	Chinese foot
bù	Template:Lang	5	1.6 m	5.2 ft	Chinese pace
zhàng	Template:Lang	10	3.2 m	3.50 yd	Chinese yard
yǐn	Template:Lang	100	32 m	35.0 yd
lǐ	Template:Lang	1800	576 m	630 yd	Chinese mile, this li is not the small li above, which has a different character and tone

Chinese length units effective in 1930

File:ROC1929-02-20國民政府公報97.pdf

Chinese measurement law in 1929, effective 1 January 1930

File:Chinese-measuring-tape.jpg

Chinese measuring tape

Table of Chinese length units effective in 1930<ref name="ROC1930" />

Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	Template:Frac μm	Template:Val	Chinese mil
lí	Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S)	Template:Frac	Template:Frac mm	0.0131 in	Chinese calibre
fēn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	Template:Frac mm	0.1312 in	Chinese line
cùn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	Template:Frac cm	1.312 in	Chinese inch
chǐ	Template:Lang	1	Template:Frac cm	13.12 in	Chinese foot
zhàng	Template:Lang	10	Template:Frac m	3.645 yd	Chinese yard
yǐn	Template:Lang	100	Template:Frac m	36.45 yd	Chinese chain
lǐ	Template:Lang	1500	500 m	546.8 yd	Chinese mile, this li is not the small li above, which has a different character and tone

Metric length units

The Chinese word for metre is Template:Lang mǐ; this can take the Chinese standard SI prefixes (for "kilo-", "centi-", etc.). A kilometre, however, may also be called Template:Lang gōnglǐ, i.e. a metric lǐ.

In the engineering field, traditional units are rounded up to metric units. For example, the Chinese word Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S) sī is used to express 0.01 mm.

Table of Chinese length units in engineering

Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
hū	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	1 μm		Authorized name: Template:Lang
sī	Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S)	Template:Frac	10 μm		Authorized name: Template:Lang
háo	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	100 μm		Authorized name: Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S)
lí	Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S)	Template:Frac	1 mm		Authorized name: Template:Lang
fēn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	10 mm		Authorized name: Template:Lang(T) or Template:Lang(S)
cùn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	100 mm		Authorized name: Template:Lang
chǐ	Template:Lang	1	1 m		Authorized name: Template:Lang
Zhàng	Template:Lang	10	10 m		Authorized name: Template:Lang
yǐn	Template:Lang	100	100 m		Authorized name: Template:Lang
lǐ	Template:Lang	1000	1000 m		this li is not the small li above, which has a different character and tone

Hong Kong and Macau length units

Table of Chinese length units in Hong Kong<ref name="HK" /> and Macau<ref name="MO" />

Jyutping	Character	English	Portuguese	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
fan1	Template:Lang	fan	condorim	Template:Frac	Template:Val	0.1463 in
cyun3	Template:Lang	tsun	ponto	Template:Frac	Template:Val	1.463 in	Hong Kong and Macau inch
cek3	Template:Lang	chek	côvado	1	Template:Val	1.219 ft	Hong Kong and Macau foot

These correspond to the measures listed simply as "China" in The Measures, Weights, & Moneys of All Nations <ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Area

Chinese area units promulgated in 1915

Table of Chinese area units promulgated in 1915<ref name="ROC1915" />

Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	0.6144 mTemplate:Sup	0.7348 sq yd
lí	Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S)	Template:Frac	6.144 mTemplate:Sup	7.348 sq yd
fēn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	61.44 mTemplate:Sup	73.48 sq yd
mǔ	Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S)	1	614.4 mTemplate:Sup	734.82 sq yd	Chinese acre, or 60 square zhang
qǐng	Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S)	100	6.144 ha	15.18 acre	Chinese hide

Table of Chinese square units effective in 1915<ref name="ROC1915" />

Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
fāng cùn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	10.24 cmTemplate:Sup	1.587 sq in	square cun
fāng chǐ	Template:Lang	1	0.1024 mTemplate:Sup	1.102 sq ft	square chi
fāng zhàng	Template:Lang	100	10.24 mTemplate:Sup	110.2 sq ft	square zhang

Chinese area units effective in 1930

Table of Chinese area units effective in 1930<ref name="ROC1930" />

Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	Template:Frac mTemplate:Sup	7.18 sq ft
lí	Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S)	Template:Frac	Template:Frac mTemplate:Sup	7.973 sq yd
fēn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	Template:Frac mTemplate:Sup	79.73 sq yd
Template:Anchormǔ	Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S)	1	Template:Frac mTemplate:Sup	797.3 sq yd 0.1647 acre	Chinese acre 6000 square chi per Article 5 of the 1930 Law (六千平方尺定為一畝) 60 square zhang 1/15 of a hectare
qǐng	Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S)	100	Template:Frac ha	16.47 acre	Chinese hide

Table of Chinese square units effective in 1930<ref name="ROC1930" />

Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
fāng cùn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	Template:Frac cmTemplate:Sup	1.722 sq in	square cun
fāng chǐ	Template:Lang	1	Template:Frac mTemplate:Sup	172.2 sq in 1.196 sq ft	square chi
fāng zhàng	Template:Lang	100	Template:Frac mTemplate:Sup	119.6 sq ft 13.29 sq yd	square zhang

Metric and other area units

Metric and other standard length units can be squared by the addition of the prefix Template:Lang píngfāng. For example, a square kilometre is Template:Lang píngfāng gōnglǐ.

Macau area units

Table of Chinese area units in Macau<ref name="MO" />

Jyutping	Portuguese	Character	Relative value	Relation to the Traditional Chinese Units (Macau)	Metric value	Imperial value
cek3	côvado	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	Template:FracTemplate:Lang	0.1269 mTemplate:Sup	1.366 sq ft
pou3		Template:Lang	Template:Frac	Template:FracTemplate:Lang	3.1725 mTemplate:Sup	34.15 sq ft 3.794 sq yd
zoeng6	braça	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	Template:FracTemplate:Lang	12.69 mTemplate:Sup	136.6 sq ft 15.18 sq yd
fan1	condorim	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	Template:FracTemplate:Lang	76.14 mTemplate:Sup	91.06 sq yd
mau5	maz	Template:Lang (T) or Template:Lang (S)	1	None	761.4 mTemplate:Sup	910.6 sq yd

Volume

These units are used to measure cereal grains, among other things. In imperial times, the physical standard for these was the jialiang.

Chinese volume units promulgated in 1915

Table of Chinese volume units effective in 1915<ref name="ROC1915" />

Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	US value	Imperial value	Notes
sháo	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	Template:Val	0.3501 fl oz	0.3644 fl oz
gě	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	Template:Val	3.501 fl oz	3.644 fl oz
shēng	Template:Lang	1	Template:Val	2.188 pt	1.822 pt
dǒu	Template:Lang	10	Template:Val	2.735 gal	2.278 gal
hú	Template:Lang	50	Template:Val	13.68 gal	11.39 gal
dàn	Template:Lang	100	Template:Val	27.35 gal	22.78 gal

Chinese volume units effective in 1930

Table of Chinese volume units effective in 1930<ref name="ROC1930" />

Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	US value	Imperial value	Notes
cuō	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	1 mL	0.0338 fl oz	0.0352 fl oz	millilitre
sháo	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	10 mL	0.3381 fl oz	0.3520 fl oz	centilitre
gě	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	100 mL	3.381 fl oz	3.520 fl oz	decilitre
shēng	Template:Lang	1	1 L	2.113 pt	1.760 pt	litre
dǒu	Template:Lang	10	10 L	21.13 pt 2.64 gal	17.60 pt 2.20 gal	decalitre
dàn	Template:Lang	100	100 L	26.41 gal	22.0 gal	hectolitre

Metric volume units

In the case of volume, the market and metric shēng coincide, being equal to one litre as shown in the table. The Chinese standard SI prefixes (for "milli-", "centi-", etc.) may be added to this word shēng.

Units of volume can also be obtained from any standard unit of length using the prefix Template:Lang lìfāng ("cubic"), as in Template:Lang lìfāng mǐ for one cubic metre.

Macau volume units

Table of Chinese volume units in Macau<ref name="MO" />

Jyutping	Character	Relation to the Traditional Chinese Units (Macau)	Metric value
cyut3	Template:Lang	Template:FracTemplate:Lang	1.031 L
gam1 dak6	Template:Lang	Template:FracTemplate:Lang	10.31 L
sek6	Template:Lang	None	103.1 L

Mass

These units are used to measure the mass of objects. They are also famous for measuring monetary objects such as gold and silver.

Chinese mass units promulgated in 1915

Table of Chinese mass units promulgated in 1915<ref name="ROC1915" />

Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	3.7301 mg	0.0001316 oz
lí	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	37.301 mg	0.001316 oz	cash
fēn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	373.01 mg	0.01316 oz	candareen
qián	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	3.7301 g	0.1316 oz	mace or Chinese dram
liǎng	Template:Lang	1	37.301 g	1.316 oz	tael or Chinese ounce
jīn	Template:Lang	16	596.816 g	1.316 lb	catty or Chinese pound

Mass units in the Republic of China since 1930

Table of mass units in the Republic of China since 1930<ref name="ROC1930" />

Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
sī	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	312.5 μg	Template:Val
háo	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	3.125 mg	Template:Val
lí	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	31.25 mg	Template:Val	cash
fēn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	312.5 mg	Template:Val	candareen
qián	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	3.125 g	0.1102 oz	mace or Chinese dram
liǎng	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	31.25 g	1.102 oz	tael or Chinese ounce
jīn	Template:Lang	1	500 g	1.102 lb	catty or Chinese pound
dàn	Template:Lang	100	50 kg	110.2 lb	picul or Chinese hundredweight

Mass units in the People's Republic of China since 1959

Table of mass units in the People's Republic of China since 1959<ref name="PRC1959" />

Pinyin	Character<ref>Template:In lang 1959 Gazette of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, No. 180, page 316</ref>	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
lí	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	50 mg	Template:Val	cash
fēn	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	500 mg	Template:Val	candareen
qián	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	5 g	0.1764 oz	mace or Chinese dram
liǎng	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	50 g	1.764 oz	tael or Chinese ounce
jīn	Template:Lang	1	500 g	1.102 lb	catty or Chinese pound formerly 16 liang = 1 jin
dàn	Template:Lang	100	50 kg	110.2 lb	picul or Chinese hundredweight

Metric mass units

The Chinese word for gram is Template:Lang kè; this can take the Chinese standard SI prefixes (for "milli-", "deca-", and so on). A kilogram, however, is commonly called Template:Lang gōngjīn, i.e. a metric jīn.

Hong Kong and Macau mass units

Table of Chinese mass units in Hong Kong<ref name="HK" /> and Macau<ref name="MO" />

Jyutping	Character	English	Portuguese	Relative value	Relation to the Traditional Chinese Units (Macau)	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
lei4	Template:Lang	li, cash	liz	Template:Frac	Template:Frac condorim	Template:Val	Template:Val	Not defined in Hong Kong. Macanese definition may not be correct when dividing catty.
fan1	Template:Lang	fen, fan, candareen	condorim	Template:Frac	Template:Frac maz	Template:Val	0.2133 dr	Macanese definition of 377.9931 mg may not be correct when dividing catty.
cin4	Template:Lang	qian, tsin, mace	maz	Template:Frac	Template:Frac tael	Template:Val	2.1333 dr	Macanese definition of Template:Val may not be correct when dividing catty.
loeng2	Template:Lang	liang, leung, tael	tael	Template:Frac	Template:Frac cate	Template:Val	1.3333 oz	Macanese definition of Template:Val may not be correct when dividing catty.
gan1	Template:Lang	jin, kan, catty	cate	1	Template:Frac pico	604.78982 g	1.3333 lb	Hong Kong and Macau share the definition.
daam3	Template:Lang	dan, tam, picul	pico	100	None	60.478982 kg	133.3333 lb	Hong Kong and Macau share the definition.
		Ding				1000 kg

Hong Kong troy units

These are used for trading precious metals such as gold and silver.

Table of mass (Hong Kong troy) units<ref name="HK" />

English	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
fen (candareen) troy	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	374.29 mg	0.096 drt
qian (mace) troy	Template:Lang	Template:Frac	3.7429 g	0.96 drt
liang (tael) troy	Template:Lang	1	37.429 g	1.2 ozt

Time

Table of time units

Pinyin	Character	Relative value		Western value		Notes
		Traditional value	Modern value	Traditional value	Modern value
miǎo	Template:Lang			144 milliseconds	1 second
fēn	Template:Lang	100 miǎo	60 miǎo	14.4 seconds	1 minute
kè	Template:Lang	1 minor kè = 10 fēn	15 fēn	2 minutes 24 seconds	15 minutes, 1 quarter	kè was defined at Template:Frac, Template:Frac, or Template:Frac day during the Liang dynasty, and established at Template:Frac day after the Qing dynasty.
		1 major kè = 60 fēn		14 minutes 24 seconds
diǎn	Template:Lang (T) Template:Lang (S)	100 fēn	60 fēn	24 minutes	1 hour
shí<ref>Nachum Dershowitz, Edward M. Reingold, "Calendrical calculations", page 207</ref>	Template:Lang (T) Template:Lang (S)	Template:Frac kè	4 kè	2 hours	1 hour	the xiǎoshí(Template:Lang, lit. minor shí) is currently a unit used to express "hour" in order to avoid ambiguity
		(pre-Qin) 10 kè		2 hours 24 minutes
shíchén	Template:Lang (T) Template:Lang (S)	Template:Frac kè	-	2 hours	-
		(pre-Qin) 10 kè		2 hours 24 minutes
xiǎoshí	Template:Lang (T) Template:Lang (S)	-	60 fēn	-	1 hour
rì / tiān	Template:Lang	12 shíchén	24 xiǎoshí	24 hours		1 day

Historiography

As there were hundreds of unofficial measures in use, the bibliography is quite vast. The editions of Wu Chenglou's 1937 History of Chinese Measurement<ref>Template:Citation, 2nd ed. in 1957, 3rd ed. in 1993. Template:In lang</ref> were the usual standard up to the 1980s or so, but rely mostly on surviving literary accounts. Newer research has put more emphasis on archeological discoveries.<ref name="Wilkinson2000"/> Qiu Guangming & Zhang Yanming's 2005 bilingual Concise History of Ancient Chinese Measures and Weights summarizes these findings.<ref>Template:Citation. Template:In langTemplate:Nbsp& Template:In lang</ref> A relatively recent and comprehensive bibliography, organized by period studied, has been compiled in 2012 by Cao & al.;<ref>Template:Citation.</ref> for a shorter list, see Wilkinson's year 2000 Chinese History.<ref name="Wilkinson2000">Template:Citation.</ref>

See also

• Chinese numbers and classifiers
• Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches
• Units, systems, and history of measurement
• Taiwanese and Hong Kong units of measurement
• Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese units of measurement

References

Sources

• Hill, John E. (2015) Through the Jade Gate - China to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. Vol. I. John E. Hill. CreateSpace, Charleston, South Carolina. Template:ISBN.
• Homer H. Dubs (1938): The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. One. Translator and editor: Homer H. Dubs. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc.
• Homer H. Dubs (1955): The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Three. Translator and editor: Homer H. Dubs. Ithaca, New York. Spoken Languages Services, Inc.
• Hulsewé, (1961). "Han measures." A. F. P. Hulsewé, T'oung pao Archives, Vol. XLIX, Livre 3, pp. 206–207.
• Chinese Measurement Converter - Online Chinese / Metric / Imperial Converter
• Chinese/Metric/Imperial Measurement Converter
• Template:Cite book