Editing Swiss German (section)

=== Reduplication verbs ===

==== Overview ====
In Swiss German, a small number of verbs reduplicate in a reduced infinitival form, i.e. unstressed shorter form, when used in their [[Finite verb|finite form]] governing the [[infinitive]] of another verb. The reduced and reduplicated part of the verb in question is normally put in front of the infinitive of the second verb.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Glaser|first1=Elvira|last2=Frey|first2=Natascha|date=2011|title=Empirische Studien zur Verbverdoppelung in schweizerdeutschen Dialekten|url=http://www.linguistik-online.com/45_11/editorial.pdf|journal=Linguistik Online|volume=45|issue=1|pages=3–7|doi=10.5167/uzh-52463|s2cid=189169085 |issn=1615-3014}}</ref> This is the case for the motion verbs {{Lang|gsw|gaa}} 'to go' and {{Lang|gsw|choo}} 'to come' when used in the meaning of 'go (to) do something', 'come (to) do something', as well as the verbs {{Lang|gsw|laa}} 'to let' and in certain dialects {{Lang|gsw|afaa}} 'to start, to begin' when used in the meaning of 'let do something', or 'start doing something'.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brandner|first1=Ellen|last2=Salzmann|first2=Martin|date=2012|editor-last=Ackema|editor-first=Peter|editor2-last=Alcorn|editor2-first=Rhona|editor3-last=Heycock|editor3-first=Caroline|editor4-last=Jaspers|editor4-first=Dany|editor5-last=van Craenenbroeck|editor5-first=Jeroen|editor6-last=Vanden Wyngaerd|editor6-first=Guido|title=Crossing the lake: Motion verb constructions in Bodensee-Alemannic and Swiss German|url=https://benjamins.com/catalog/la.191.03bra|journal=Linguistik Aktuell/Linguistics Today|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|volume=191|pages=67–98|doi=10.1075/la.191.03bra|access-date=26 November 2021|archive-date=26 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126030234/https://benjamins.com/catalog/la.191.03bra|url-status=live}}</ref> Most affected by this phenomenon is the verb {{Lang|gsw|gaa}}, followed by ''{{Lang|gsw|choo}}''. Both ''{{Lang|gsw|laa}}'' and ''{{Lang|gsw|afaa}}'' are less affected and only when used in [[present tense]] [[Independent clause|declarative main clauses]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Lötscher|first=Andreas|title=Zur Genese der Verbverdopplung bei gaa, choo, laa, aafaa ("gehen", "kommen", "lassen", "anfangen") im Schweizerdeutschen|date=1993|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-322-97032-9_9|work=Dialektsyntax|pages=180–200|editor-last=Abraham|editor-first=Werner|series=Linguistische Berichte Sonderheft|place=Wiesbaden|publisher=VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften|language=de|doi=10.1007/978-3-322-97032-9_9|isbn=978-3-322-97032-9|access-date=2021-11-26|editor2-last=Bayer|editor2-first=Josef|archive-date=29 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240129223337/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-322-97032-9_9|url-status=live}}</ref>

Declarative sentence examples: 
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Swiss German'''
|{{Lang|gsw|Ich}} 
|{{Lang|gsw|gang}}
|{{Lang|gsw|jetzt}}
|{{Lang|gsw|go}} 
|{{Lang|gsw|ässe}}
|-
|'''Gloss'''
|I
|go-1<sub>SG</sub>
|now
|go
|eat-INF
|-
|'''Standard German'''
|{{Lang|de|Ich}}
|{{Lang|de|gehe}}
|{{Lang|de|jetzt}}
|Ø
|{{Lang|de|essen}}
|-
|'''English'''
| colspan="5" |I'm going to eat now.  / I'll go eat now.
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Swiss German'''
|{{Lang|gsw|Er}}
|{{Lang|gsw|chunnt}}
|{{Lang|gsw|jetzt}}
|{{Lang|gsw|cho}}
|{{Lang|gsw|ässe}}
|-
|'''Gloss'''
|He
|comes
|now
|come
|eat-INF
|-
|'''Standard German'''
|{{Lang|de|Er}}
|{{Lang|de|kommt}}
|{{Lang|de|jetzt}}
|Ø
|{{Lang|de|essen}}
|-
|'''English'''
| colspan="5" |He's coming to eat now. 
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Swiss German'''
|{{Lang|gsw|Du}}
|{{Lang|gsw|lahsch}}
|{{Lang|gsw|mi}}
|{{Lang|gsw|la}}
|{{Lang|gsw|ässe}}
|-
|'''Gloss'''
|You
|let-2<sub>SG</sub>
|me-ACC
|let
|eat-INF
|-
|'''Standard German'''
|{{Lang|de|Du}}
|{{Lang|de|lässt}}
|{{Lang|de|mich}}
|Ø
|{{Lang|de|essen}}
|-
|'''English'''
| colspan="5" |You're letting me eat. / You let me eat. 
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Swiss German'''
|{{Lang|gsw|Mier}}
|{{Lang|gsw|fanged}}
|{{Lang|gsw|jetzt}}
|{{Lang|gsw|a}}
|{{Lang|gsw|fa}}
|{{Lang|gsw|ässe}}
|-
|'''Gloss'''
|We
|start-1<sub>PL</sub>
|now
|start-PREF
|start
|eat-INF
|-
|'''Standard German'''
|{{Lang|de|Wir}}
|{{Lang|de|fangen}}
|{{Lang|de|jetzt}}
|{{Lang|de|an}}
|{{Lang|de|zu}}
|{{Lang|de|essen}}
|-
|'''English'''
| colspan="6" |We're starting to eat now. / We start eating now. 
|}
As the examples show, all verbs are reduplicated with a reduced infinitival form when used in a declarative main clause. This is especially interesting as it stands in contrast to the standard variety of German and other varieties of the same, where such doubling effects are not found as outlined in the examples.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Brandner|first1=Ellen|url=https://kops.uni-konstanz.de/handle/123456789/17335|title=Die Bewegungverbkonstruktion im Alemannischen : Wie Unterschiede in der Kategorie einer Partikel zu syntaktischer Variation führen|last2=Salzmann|first2=Martin|year=2011|isbn=978-3-515-09900-4|editor-last=Glaser|editor-first=Elvira|pages=47–76|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |language=German|editor-last2=Schmidt|editor-first2=Jürgen E.|editor-last3=Frey|editor-first3=Natascha|access-date=26 November 2021|archive-date=29 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240129223346/https://kops.uni-konstanz.de/member_indicator.png|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== {{Lang|gsw|Afaa}}: weakest doubling effects ====
[[Reduplication]] effects are weaker in the verbs {{Lang|gsw|laa}} 'to let' and {{Lang|gsw|afaa}} 'to start, to begin' than they are in {{Lang|gsw|gaa}} 'to go' and {{Lang|gsw|choo}} 'to come'. This means that ''{{Lang|gsw|afaa}}'' is most likely to be used without its reduplicated and reduced form while retaining grammaticality, whereas utterances with ''goo'' are least likely to remain grammatical without the reduplicated part.

Between ''{{Lang|gsw|laa}}'' and ''{{Lang|gsw|afaa}}'', these effects are weakest in ''{{Lang|gsw|afaa}}''. This means that while reduplication is mandatory for ''{{Lang|gsw|laa}}'' in declarative main clauses almost everywhere in the country, this is the case for fewer varieties of Swiss German with ''{{Lang|gsw|afaa}}''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Andres|first=Marie-Christine|date=2011-01-01|title=Verdopplung beim Verb afaa im nord-östlichen Aargau|url=https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/385|journal=Linguistik Online|language=de|volume=45|issue=1|doi=10.13092/lo.45.385|issn=1615-3014|doi-access=free|access-date=26 November 2021|archive-date=26 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126030236/https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/385|url-status=live}}</ref> The reason for this is unknown, but it has been hypothesized that the fact that ''afaa'' has [[German verbs#Separable prefixes|a separable prefix]] (''a''-) might weaken its doubling capacity.<ref name=":0" /> The presence of this separable prefix also makes the boundaries between the reduced infinitival reduplication form and the prefix hard if not impossible to determine.<ref name=":0" /> Thus, in the example above for ''{{Lang|gsw|afaa}}'', an argument could be made that the prefix a- is left off, while the full reduplicated form is used:

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
|Mier fanged jetzt afa ässe
|We start-1PL now start eat-INF
|We're starting to eat now. / We start eating now.}}

In this case, the prefix would be omitted, which is normally not permissible for separable prefixes, and in its place, the reduplication form is used.

Meanwhile, ''{{Lang|gsw|afaa}}'' is not reduplicated when used in a [[Dependent clause|subordinate clause]] or in the past tense. In such instances, doubling would result in ungrammaticality:

Past tense example with {{Lang|gsw|afaa}}:

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
|Sie händ aagfange *afa ässe
|They have-3PL started-PTCP *start eat-INF
|They started to eat.}}

The same is true for subordinate clauses and the verb ''{{Lang|gsw|afaa}}'':

Subordinate clause examples with {{Lang|gsw|afaa}}:

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
|Ich weiss dass sie jetzt afaat *afa ässe
|I know-1SG that she now starts *start eat-INF
|I know that she's starting to eat now. / I know that she starts eating now.}}

In order to achieve grammaticality in both instances, the reduced doubling part {{Lang|gsw|afa}} would have to be taken out.

==== {{Lang|gsw|Laa}} and optionality of reduplication ====
While ''{{Lang|gsw|afaa}}'' 'to start, to begin' is quite restricted when it comes to [[reduplication]] effects, the phenomenon is more permissive, but not mandatory in the verb {{Lang|gsw|laa}} 'to let'. While present tense declarative sentences are generally ungrammatical when ''{{Lang|gsw|laa}}'' remains unduplicated, this is not true for [[past tense]] and subordinate clauses, where doubling effects are optional at best:

Past tense example with ''{{Lang|gsw|laa}}'':

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
|Er het mi la ässe (laa)
|He has me-ACC let eat-INF (let-PTCP)
|He has let me eat. / He let me eat.}}

Subordinate clause example with ''{{Lang|gsw|laa}}'':

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
|Ich weiss dass er mi laat (la) ässe
|I know-1SG that he me-ACC lets (let) eat-INF
|I know that he lets me eat. / I know that he's letting me eat.}}

In the use of this form, there are both geographical and age differences. [[Reduplication]] is found more often in the western part of Switzerland than in the eastern part, while younger generations are much more inclined to leave out reduplication, which means that the phenomenon is more widespread in older generations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gappisch|first=Katja Schlatter|date=2011-01-01|title=Die Verdopplung des Verbs laa 'lassen' im Zürichdeutschen|url=https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/387|journal=Linguistik Online|language=de|volume=45|issue=1|doi=10.13092/lo.45.387|issn=1615-3014|doi-access=free|access-date=26 November 2021|archive-date=26 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126030236/https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/387|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== {{Lang|gsw|Gaa}} and {{Lang|gsw|choo}}: stronger reduplication ====
Ungrammaticality in reduplication of {{Lang|gsw|afaa}} 'to start, to begin' in the past tense and in subordinate clauses as well as the somewhat more lenient use of reduplication with ''{{Lang|gsw|laa}}'' 'to let' stand in contrast to doubling effects of the motion verbs ''{{Lang|gsw|gaa}}'' 'to go' and {{Lang|gsw|choo}} 'to come'. When the latter two verbs are used in other utterances other than a declarative main clause, where the finite verb traditionally is in second position, their use might not be mandatory; however, it is correct and grammatical to double them both in the past tense and in subordinate clauses:

Past tense example with {{Lang|gsw|gaa}} and {{Lang|gsw|choo}}:

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
| Er isch go ässe (g'gange)
| He is go eat-INF (gone)
| He has gone to eat. / He went to eat.}}

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
| Sie isch cho ässe (cho)
| She is come eat-INF (come-PTCP)
| She has come to eat. / She came to eat.}}

As outlined in both examples, the reduplicated form of both {{Lang|gsw|gaa}} and {{Lang|gsw|choo}} can but does not have to be used in order for the past tense sentences to be grammatical.Notably, it is the reduced form of both verbs that is necessary, not the full [[Participle|participle form]].

Subordinate clause examples for {{Lang|gsw|gaa}} and {{Lang|gsw|choo}}:

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
| Ich weiss dass sie gaat go ässe
| I know-1SG that she goes go eat-INF
| I know that she'll go eat. / I know that she's going to eat.}}

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
| Ich weiss dass sie chunnt cho ässe
| I know-1SG that she comes come eat-INF
| I know that she'll come to eat. / I know that she's coming to eat.}}

In subordinate clauses, the reduplicated part is needed as the sentence would otherwise be ungrammatical in both ''{{Lang|gsw|gaa}}'' and ''{{Lang|gsw|choo}}''.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=https://www.meertens.knaw.nl/projecten/edisyn/Online_proceedings/Paper_Glaser-Frey.pdf|title=Doubling Phenomena in Swiss German Dialects|last1=Glaser|first1=Elvira|last2=Frey|first2=Natascha|publisher=[[University of Zurich]]|access-date=26 November 2021|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108110107/https://www.meertens.knaw.nl/projecten/edisyn/Online_proceedings/Paper_Glaser-Frey.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The same is true for the past tense. Since there is only one past tense in Swiss German and since this is formed using an auxiliary verb – {{Lang|gsw|sii}} 'to be' or {{Lang|gsw|haa}} 'to have', depending on the main verb – reduplication seems to be affected and therefore, less strictly enforced for ''{{Lang|gsw|gaa}}'' and ''{{Lang|gsw|choo}}'', while it is completely ungrammatical for {{Lang|gsw|afaa}} and optional for {{Lang|gsw|laa}} respectively.

==== Questions ====
Questions behave a lot like their declarative counterparts, and reduplication is therefore mandatory for both motion verbs ''{{Lang|gsw|gaa}}'' 'to go' and ''{{Lang|gsw|choo}}'' 'to come', while ''{{Lang|gsw|laa}}'' 'to let' and ''{{Lang|gsw|afaa}}'' 'to start, to begin' show weaker doubling effects and more optionality. Furthermore, this is the case for both open and close (yes/no) questions. Consider the following examples:

{{Lang|gsw|Afaa}} in open and close questions:

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Fangt er a (fa) ässe
| Starts he start-PREF (start) eat-INF
| Does he start eating? / Is he starting to eat?}}

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Wenn fangt er a (fa) ässe
| When starts he start-PREF (start) eat-INF
| When does he start eating? / When is he starting to eat?}}

Just like in declarative forms, {{Lang|gsw|afaa}} could be reduced to ''a-'' and thus be considered the detachable prefix. In this case, ''{{Lang|gsw|afaa}}'' would no longer be a reduplicated verb, and that is where the language development seems to move towards.<ref name=":0" />

{{Lang|gsw|Laa}} in open and close questions: 

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Laat er sie (la) ässe
| Lets he her-ACC (let) eat-INF
| Does he let her eat? / Is he letting her eat?}}

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Wenn laat er sie (la) ässe
| When lets he her-ACC (let) eat-INF
| When does he let her eat? / When is he letting her eat?}}

{{Lang|gsw|Choo}} and especially {{Lang|gsw|gaa}}, however, do not allow for their reduced doubling part to be left out in questions, irrespective of the fact whether they are open or close:

{{Lang|gsw|Choo}} in open and close questions:

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Chunnt er cho ässe
| Comes he come eat-INF
| Does he come to eat? / Is he coming to eat?}}

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Wenn chunnt er cho ässe
| When come he come eat-INF
| When does he come to eat? / When is he coming to eat?}}

{{Lang|gsw|Gaa}} in open and close questions:

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Gaat er go ässe
| Goes he go eat-INF
| Does he go eat? / Is he going to eat?}}

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Wenn gaat er go ässe
| When goes he go eat-INF
| When does he go eat? / When is he going to eat?}}

==== Imperative mood ====
In the [[imperative mood]], just like in questions, {{Lang|gsw|gaa}} 'to go' and {{Lang|gsw|choo}} 'come' are very strict in their demand for doubling. The same is true for {{Lang|gsw|laa}} 'to let'; it is ungrammatical to use it in imperative mood undoubled. On the other hand, {{Lang|gsw|afaa}} leaves a lot more room for the speaker to play with. Speakers accept both sentences with only the detachable prefix and no doubling, and sentences with the full doubled form.

Imperative mood: {{Lang|gsw|gaa}}

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Gang go ässe
| Go-2SG.IMP go eat-INF
| Go eat!}}

Imperative mood: {{Lang|gsw|choo}}

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Chum cho ässe
| Come-2SG.IMP come eat-INF
| Come eat!}}

Imperative mood: {{Lang|gsw|laa}}

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Laa mi la ässe
| Let-2SG.IMP me-ACC let eat-INF
| Let me eat!}}

Imperative mood: {{Lang|gsw|afaa}}

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Fang a ässe
| Start-2SG.IMP start-PREF eat-INF
|}}

{{interlinear |indent=2
| Fang afa ässe
| Start-2SG.IMP start eat-INF
| Start eating!}}

==== Cross-doubling with {{Lang|gsw|choo}} and {{Lang|gsw|gaa}}====
In the case of the verb {{Lang|gsw|choo}} 'to come', there are situations when instead of it being reduplicated with its reduced form {{Lang|gsw|cho}}, the doubled short form of {{Lang|gsw|gaa}} 'to go', {{Lang|gsw|go}}, is used instead. This is possible in almost all instances of ''{{Lang|gsw|choo}}'', regardless of mood or tense.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Schaengold1999">{{Cite journal |last=Schaengold |first=Charlotte Christ |date=1999 |title=Short-form "Doubling Verbs" in Schwyzerdütsch |url=http://hdl.handle.net/1811/81985 |journal=Working Papers in Linguistics |language=en |volume=52 |issue=52 |pages=89–95 |issn=0473-9604 |hdl=1811/81985 |access-date=2021-11-26 |via=[[Ohio State University]] |hdl-access=free}}</ref> The examples below outline ''{{Lang|gsw|choo}}'' reduplicated with both its reduced form ''{{Lang|gsw|cho}}'' and the reduced form of ''{{Lang|gsw|gaa}}'', ''{{Lang|gsw|go}}'', in different sentence forms.

Declarative main clause, present tense

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
| Er chunnt cho/go ässe
| He comes come/go eat-INF
| He comes to eat. / He's coming to eat.}}

Declarative main clause past tense

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
| Er isch cho/go ässe cho
| He is come/go eat-INF come-PTCP
| He came to eat. / He has come to eat.}}

Subordinate clause

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
| Ich weiss dass er chunnt cho/go ässe
| I know-1SG that he comes come/go eat-INF
| I know that he's coming to eat. / I know that he comes to eat.}}

Imperative mood

{{interlinear |lang=gsw |indent=2
| Chum cho/go ässe
| Come-2SG.IMP come/go eat-INF
| Come eat!}}

==== Multiple reduplication with {{Lang|gsw|gaa}} and {{Lang|gsw|choo}} ====
With the motion verbs {{Lang|gsw|gaa}} 'to go' and {{Lang|gsw|choo}} 'to come', where reduplication effects are strongest, there is some variation regarding their reduplicated or reduced forms. Thus, in some Swiss German dialects, ''{{Lang|gsw|gaa}}'' will be doubled as {{Lang|gsw|goge}}, while {{Lang|gsw|choo}} will be doubled as {{Lang|gsw|choge}}. In some analyses, this is described as a multiple reduplication phenomenon in that the reduced infinitives {{Lang|gsw|go}} or {{Lang|gsw|cho}} part is repeated as {{Lang|gsw|ge}}, providing the forms ''{{Lang|gsw|goge}}'' and ''{{Lang|gsw|choge}}''.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Bedeutet Är isch ga schwümme das gleiche wie Er ist schwimmen? Eine empirische Untersuchung zu den Perfektformen der schweizerdeutschen Verbverdoppelung und zur Funktion des Absentivs|url=https://boristheses.unibe.ch/2128/|publisher=Universität Bern|date=2020-08-14|place=Bern|degree=single|doi=10.24442/boristheses.2128|first=Thomas Martin|last=Kobel|access-date=26 November 2021|archive-date=26 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126030234/https://boristheses.unibe.ch/2128/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, these forms are used less frequently than their shorter counterparts and seem to be concentrated into a small geographic area of Switzerland.