Editing Latin phonology and orthography (section)

====Notes on spelling====
* Doubled consonant letters represented genuinely [[Gemination|doubled]] consonants, as in {{angbr|cc}} for {{IPA|/kk/}}. In [[Old Latin]], geminate consonants were written as if they were single until the middle of the second century BC, when orthographic doubling began to appear.{{efn|{{lang|la|epistula ad tiburtes}}, a letter by [[praetor]] Lucius Cornelius from 159 BC, contains the first examples of doubled consonants in the words {{lang|la|potuisse}}, {{lang|la|esse}}, and {{lang|la|peccatum}} {{Harv|Clackson|Horrocks|2007|pp=147, 149}}.}} Grammarians mention the marking of double consonants with the [[sicilicus]], a diacritic in the shape of a sickle. It appears in a few inscriptions of the [[Augustan literature (ancient Rome)|Augustan era]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=11}}</ref>
* {{angbr|c}} and {{angbr|k}} both represented {{IPA|/k/}}, whereas {{angbr|qu}} represented {{IPA|/kʷ/}}. {{angbr|c}} and {{angbr|q}} distinguish minimal pairs such as {{lang|la|cui}} {{IPA|/kui̯/}} and {{lang|la|quī}} {{IPA|/kʷiː/}}.<ref name="ui">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=42}}</ref> In Classical Latin {{angbr|k}} appeared in only a few words like {{lang|la|kalendae}}, {{lang|la|Karthagō}} - which could also be spelt {{lang|la|calendae}}, {{lang|la|Carthagō}}.<ref name="Allen C">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=15, 16}}</ref>
* {{angbr|x}} represented {{IPA|/ks/}}. It was borrowed from the [[Archaic Greek alphabets#Aspirate and consonant cluster symbols|Western Greek alphabet]], where [[chi (letter)|chi]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|χ}}}} stood for {{IPA|/ks/}} as well. This was unlike the usage of chi in the [[Greek alphabet|Ionic alphabet]], where it stood for {{IPA|/kʰ/}}, with {{IPA|/ks/}} instead represented by the letter [[xi (letter)|xi]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ξ}}}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=45}}</ref>
* {{angbr|ks}} {{angbr|cs}} and {{angbr|xs}} were also used to spell {{IPA|/ks/}} in Old Latin, but by the Classical period, {{angbr|xs}} was reserved for words containing the prefix {{lang|la|ex-}} combined with a base starting with {{angbr|s}} (e.g. {{lang|la|exsanguis}}).<ref name="Zair 2023">{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Zair|title=Orthographic Traditions and the Sub-elite in the Roman Empire|isbn=9781009327664|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2023|page=170}}</ref>
* In Old Latin inscriptions, {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} were not distinguished. They were both represented by {{angbr|c}} before {{angbr|e}} and {{angbr|i}}, by {{angbr|q}} before {{angbr|o}} and {{angbr|u}}, and by {{angbr|k}} before consonants or {{angbr|a}}.<ref name="Sihler alphabet" /> The letterform {{angbr|c}} derives from the Greek [[gamma]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|Γ}}}}, which represented {{IPA|/ɡ/}}. Its use for {{IPA|/k/}} may come from [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]], which did not distinguish voiced plosives from voiceless ones. In Classical Latin, {{angbr|c}} represented {{IPA|/ɡ/}} only in the abbreviations {{lang|la|c}} and {{lang|la|cn}}, for {{lang|la|Gaius}} and {{lang|la|Gnaeus}} respectively.<ref name="Allen C" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|loc=§1a}}</ref>
*{{angbr|g}} was created in the third century BC to distinguish {{IPA|/ɡ/}} from {{IPA|/k/}}.<ref name="OL letters">{{Harvnb|Clackson|Horrocks|2007|p=96}}</ref> Its letterform derived from {{angbr|c}} with the addition of a [[diacritic]] or [[typeface anatomy|stroke]]. [[Plutarch]] attributes this innovation to [[Spurius Carvilius Ruga]] around 230 BC,<ref name="Sihler alphabet" /> but it may have originated with [[Appius Claudius Caecus]]<!-- Allen simply says Appius Claudius in the 4th century BC; Caecus is the only one at that time listed by Wikipedia. Another source would be good. --> in the fourth century BC.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=15}}</ref>
* The cluster {{angbr|gn}} probably represented the consonant cluster {{IPA|[ŋn]}}, at least between vowels, as in {{lang|la|agnus}} {{IPA|[ˈäŋ.nʊs]}} {{audio|La-cls-agnus2.ogg|listen}}.<ref name="Lloyd 81">{{Harvnb|Lloyd|1987|p=81}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=23}}</ref> Vowels before this cluster were sometimes long and sometimes short.<ref name="Vgn" />
* The digraphs {{angbr|ph}}, {{angbr|th}}, and {{angbr|ch}} represented the aspirated plosives {{IPA|/pʰ/}}, {{IPA|/tʰ/}} and {{IPA|/kʰ/}}. They began to be used in writing around 150&nbsp;BC,<ref name="OL letters" /> primarily as a transcription of Greek [[phi]] {{lang|grc|Φ}}, [[theta]] {{lang|grc|Θ}}, and [[Chi (letter)|chi]] {{lang|grc|Χ}}, as in {{lang|la|Philippus}}, {{lang|la|cithara}}, and {{lang|la|achāia}}. Some native words were later also written with these digraphs, such as {{lang|la|pulcher}}, {{lang|la|lachrima}}, {{lang|la|gracchus}}, {{lang|la|triumphus}}, probably representing aspirated allophones of the voiceless plosives near {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/l/}}. Aspirated plosives and the glottal fricative {{IPA|/h/}} were also used [[hypercorrection|hypercorrectively]], an affectation satirized in [[s:Translation:Catullus 84|Catullus 84]].<ref name="aspirate1" /><ref name="aspirate2" />
* In Old Latin, Koine Greek initial {{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/zz/}} between vowels were represented by {{angbr|s}} and {{angbr|ss}}, as in {{lang|la|sona}} from {{lang|grc|ζώνη}} and {{lang|la|massa}} from {{lang|grc|μᾶζα}}. Around the second and first centuries B.C., the Greek letter [[zeta]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|Ζ}}}} was adopted to represent {{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/zz/}}.<ref name="Allen Z" /> However, the [[Vulgar Latin]] spellings<!-- Sturtevant does not specify when these spellings were used, but they seem to be from Late or Vulgar, not Classical Latin, given the use of ae for e. --> {{angbr|z}} or {{angbr|zi}} for earlier {{angbr|di}} and {{angbr|d}} before {{angbr|e}}, and the spellings {{angbr|di}} and {{angbr|dz}} for earlier {{angbr|z}}, suggest the pronunciation {{IPA|/dz/}}, as for example {{lang|la|ziomedis}} for {{lang|la|diomedis}}, and {{lang|la|diaeta}} for {{lang|la|zeta}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sturtevant|1920|pp=115–116}}</ref>
* In ancient times {{angbr|V}} and {{angbr|I}} represented the [[approximant consonant|approximant]] consonants {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}, as well as the close vowels {{IPA|/u(ː)/}} and {{IPA|/i(ː)/}}.
* {{angbr|i}} representing the consonant {{IPA|/j/}} was usually not doubled in writing, so a single {{angbr|i}} represented double {{IPA|/jː/}} or {{IPA|/jj/}} and the sequences {{IPA|/ji/}} and {{IPA|/jːi/}}, as in {{lang|la|cuius}} for *{{lang|la|cuiius}} {{IPA|/ˈkuj.jus/}}, {{lang|la|conicit}} for *{{lang|la|coniicit}} {{IPA|/ˈkon.ji.kit/}}, and {{lang|la|reicit}} for *{{lang|la|reiiicit}} {{IPA|/ˈrej.ji.kit/}}. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of {{angbr|i}} could occur in some of the same environments: compare {{lang|la|māius}} {{IPA|/ˈmaj.jus/}} with {{lang|la|Gāius}} {{IPA|/ˈɡaː.i.us/}}, and {{lang|la|Iūlius}} {{IPA|/ˈjuː.li.us/}} with {{lang|la|Iūlus}} {{IPA|/iˈuː.lus/}}. The vowel before a doubled {{IPA|/jː/}} is sometimes marked with a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]], as in {{lang|la|cūius}}.<!-- Source for this use of macron needed; Allen and Greenough uses a circumflex. --> It indicates not that the vowel is long but that the first syllable is [[syllable weight|heavy]] from the double consonant.<ref name="Allen j" />
* {{angbr|V}} between vowels represented single {{IPA|/w/}} in native Latin words but double {{IPA|/ww/}} in Greek loanwords. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of {{angbr|V}} sometimes occurred in similar environments, as in {{lang|la|GENVA}} {{IPA|[ˈɡɛ.nu.ä]}} and {{lang|la|SILVA}} {{IPA|[ˈsɪl.wä]}}.<ref name="Allen v" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|loc=§6d, 11c}}</ref>