Editing Umbrian language (section)

===== Perfect stem =====
Like other Italic languages, the Umbrian language merged the aorist and perfect tense found in [[Proto-Italic language|Proto-Italic]] and [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]], although the Sabellic languages, a language family of which Umbrian is a member, preserved the forms of the Proto-Indo-European athematic second aorist while Latin preserved the perfect forms of Proto-Indo-European. These etymological differences created numerous morphological discrepancies between the Sabellic languages and the Latino-Faliscan languages, the subgroup of Italic languages containing Latin. In Umbrian, the perfect subjunctive was marked by the addition of the vowel {{lang|xum|-ē-}} to the ending while in Latin, it was marked by the vowel {{Lang|la|-ī-}}.{{Sfn|Piwowarczyk|2011|p=107}} Umbrian perfect stems likely could be formed by 5 distinct types of modification applied to the present stem of the verb: reduplication, the simple perfect, k-perfect, f-perfect, and—a form exclusive to Umbrian—the nky-perfect.{{Sfn|Piwowarczyk|2011|p=107}} Reduplication was the most common method of forming the perfect in the original Proto-Indo-European language and it typically involved the addition of the vowel {{Lang|xum|-e-}} following the reduplicated syllable. Remnants of this technique appear in Umbrian verbs such as {{Lang|xum|peperscust}}, in which the initial consonant of {{Lang|xum|p-}} is reduplicated with an {{Lang|xum|-e-}} vowel added between the two letters. However, perfect forms that are—in origin—reduplicated perfects may not follow this pattern.{{Sfn|Piwowarczyk|2011|p=109}} This category, referred to as the "simple perfects," comprise verbs such as {{Lang|xum|dersicust}}, which likely derives from {{Lang|xum|*dedik-}}, the perfect stem of the Proto-Italic verb {{Lang|itc|*deikō}}. Although the original form was reduplicated according to the aforementioned pattern, the {{Lang|itc|-d-}} changed to {{Lang|xum|-ř-}} during the transition from Proto-Italic to Umbrian.{{Sfn|Piwowarczyk|2011|p=110}}

Umbrian perfect forms such as {{Lang|xum|andirsafust}} demonstrate the f-perfect, a type of modification that forms perfect stems through the addition of the consonant {{Lang|xum|-f-}}. The origin of this type of augment is unclear, although it may have derived from the [[univerbation]] of older terms. For instance, in the case of {{Lang|xum|andirsafust}}, the term may have originated from the {{Lang|itc|am-di-da-nt-s fust}}, although this etymology specifically is disputed.{{Sfn|Piwowarczyk|2011|p=113}} In Umbrian, perfect stems possibly could be marked through the addition of the consonant {{Lang|xum|-s-}}, a modification that likely originates from the original [[Sigma|sigmatic]] aorist of the Proto-Indo-European language. This form, the s-perfect, is entirely unattested in Umbrian with the possible exception of one form: {{Lang|xum|sesust}}. However, this form is more often interpreted as a reduplicated perfect, leaving no evidence of the existence of s-perfects in Umbrian and thus compelling some linguists to reject the existence of such forms in the language.{{Sfn|Piwowarczyk|2011|p=111}}  

The perfect marker {{Lang|la|-nsi-}}, {{Lang|xum|-ns-}}, or {{Lang|xum|-nç-}} appears in Umbrian terms such as {{Lang|xum|'''purtinçus'''}} and {{Lang|la|purdinsiust}}.{{Sfn|Markey|1985|pp=261-262}} The etymological origins of this root are unclear, it may have emerged from a reconstructed Proto-Italic form {{Lang|la|*-nki-}}, itself possibly related to Proto-Indo-European {{Lang|pie|*h₁neḱ-}} ("to bear, to bring.").{{Sfn|Markey|1985|p=263}} This form was preserved into the Ancient Greek term {{Lang|grc|ἤνεγκα}} ({{Lang|grc|ḗnenka}}), the aorist form of {{Lang|grc|φέρω}} ("{{Lang|grc|phérō}}," "to bear," to "bring") and the [[Old Irish]] suffix {{Lang|sga|-icc}}, found as a marker of [[perfective aspect]] in forms such {{Lang|sga|do·uic}}, the perfect stem of {{Lang|sga|do·beir}} ("to give," "to bring").{{Sfn|Markey|1985|pp=263-264}} The linguist Kenneth Shields, Jr. argued that this perfect ending originated from the combination of third-person singular forms ending in {{Lang|pie|*-Ø-}}  with the [[Deixis|deictic particle]] {{Lang|pie|*-N}}, creating {{Lang|pie|*-Ø-N}}. According to Shields, this form was later reanalyzed to produce  {{Lang|pie|*-N-Ø-}} and was then suffixed with {{Lang|pie|*-ki}}, culminating in the form {{Lang|pie|*-N-Ø-ki}}. This form may have then been reanalyzed as {{Lang|pie|*-nky-Ø}}, concluding the process of evolution and creating the Umbrian perfect morpheme.{{Sfn|Shields|1989|p=79}} Shields proposes that the term may be cognate with the Lithuanian imperative suffix {{Lang|lt|-ki}} and that the deictic particle {{Lang|pie|*-k}} can be observed in terms such as Latin {{Lang|la|cis}} ("on," "to this," "on this side") or [[Ancient Greek]] {{Lang|grc|τῆτες}} ({{Lang|grc|têtes}}, "this year").{{Sfn|Shields|1989|pp=79-80}} The linguist David Jerrett, noting that perfect marker exclusively appears in [[Denominal verb|denominal verbs]], argued that the perfect stem originated from nouns combined with the perfect forms of an unattested Umbrian verb deriving from Proto-Indo-European {{Lang|pie|ḱey-}} (meaning, "to lie down, to settle"), which may have developed a new meaning akin to "to set in motion, be in motion." Such a semantic shift occurred in other Indo-European languages: the Ancient Greek verbs "{{Lang|grc|κινέω}}" ("{{Lang|grc|kīnéō}}," "to set in motion, stir, meddle") or "{{Lang|grc|κῐ́ω}}" ("{{Lang|grc|kĭ́ō}}," "to go") and the Latin verb {{Lang|la|cieo}} ("to set in motion, move, stir") all demonstrate this transformation.{{Sfn|Jerrett|1974|pp=174-175}} When certain nouns were used alongside this unattested verb in [[Periphrasis|periphrastic]] phrases, they may have merged together to create new verbs. Jerrett cites one possible example of such a development in the verb {{Lang|xum|combifiansiust}}, which may have originated from the reconstructed noun {{Lang|xum|*combifiam}} combined with the verb form 3rd person singular future perfect active form {{Lang|xum|siust}}.{{Sfn|Jerrett|1974|p=176}} Thus, Jerret proposes a semantic shift from "{{Lang|xum|combifiam}} {{Lang|xum|siust}}," meaning "has made an announcement," to "{{Lang|xum|combifiansiust}}," meaning "has announced."{{Sfn|Jerrett|1974|p=178}}