Umbrian language
Template:Short description Template:About Template:Infobox language Umbrian is an extinct Italic language formerly spoken by the Umbri in the ancient Italian region of Umbria. Within the Italic languages it is closely related to the Oscan group and is therefore associated with it in the group of Osco-Umbrian languages, a term generally replaced by Sabellic in modern scholarship. Since that classification was first formulated, a number of other languages in ancient Italy were discovered to be more closely related to Umbrian. Therefore, a group, the Umbrian languages, was devised to contain them.
Corpus
[edit]Umbrian is known from about 30 inscriptions dated from the 7th through 1st centuries BC. The largest cache by far is the Iguvine Tablets, seven<ref name=paolucci44>The tradition born in the 17th century that the tablets were originally nine, and that two, sent to Venice, never came back, must be considered spurious. Paolucci (1966), p. 44</ref> inscribed bronze tablets found in 1444 near the village of Scheggia or, according to another tradition, in an underground chamber at Gubbio (ancient Iguvium).<ref>AA. VV. (2004), p. 243</ref><ref name=paolucci44/> The seven tablets contain notes on the ceremonies and statutes for priests of the ancient religion in the region. Sometimes they are called the Eugubian tablets after the medieval name of Iguvium/Eugubium.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> The tablets contain 4000–5000 words.
Other minor inscriptions are from Todi, Assisi and Spoleto.
Alphabet
[edit]The Iguvine tablets were written in two alphabets. The older, the Umbrian alphabet, like other Old Italic script, was derived from the Etruscan alphabet, and was written right-to-left, essentially equivalent to the Neo-Etruscan, but using a letter shaped like a 'P' from the Archaic Etruscan alphabet for the unique Umbrian sound discussed below. The newer was written in the Latin script. The texts are sometimes called Old Umbrian and New Umbrian. The differences are mainly orthographic.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> For example, rs in the Latin alphabet is represented by a single character in the native script (generally transcribed as ř; this represents an unknown sound that developed regularly from intervocalic *-d- in most cases). To clearly distinguish them, the native script is generally transcribed in bold, the Latin in italics.<ref> Buck, C.D. A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian pp. 82-83 </ref>
Grammar
[edit]Phonology
[edit]The exact phonetics of much of what follows are not completely clear.<ref>Poultney, J.W. "Bronze Tables of Iguvium" 1959 pp. 25 ff. https://archive.org/details/bronzetablesofig00poul/page/n19/mode/2up</ref>
Consonants
[edit]The consonant inventory of Umbrian is as follows:Template:Sfn
Vowels
[edit]Pure: i, e, a, o, u; ā, ē, ī, ō, ū
Diphthongs: ai, ei, ou
Nouns
[edit]Case functions
[edit]Accusative and dative
[edit]The accusative, just as in Latin, was used as the direct object of transitive verbs and with prepositions. There is also evidence of the cognate accusative, a function in Latin in which accusative nouns were often the object of related verbs. In Umbrian, this appears in the sentence "Template:Lang."Template:Sfn The dative was used in both Latin and Umbrian to refer to the indirect object of transitive verbs, although it could also be the direct object of special verbs: the Umbrian verb "Template:Lang" ("to care for") is used with the dative in the sentence "Template:Lang" to express the meaning "to care for the divine thing," which in Latin would be expressed using the equivalent verb "Template:Lang" with the accusative.Template:Sfn Certain compound verbs appear to have taken the dative, a linguistic peculiarity also present in Latin: In the sentence "Template:Lang," the compound verb "Template:Lang" takes the dative. Dative forms could also function as the indirect object of nouns with verbal meanings: "Template:Lang," meaning "dedication for Jupiter."Template:Sfn Like Latin, the Umbrian dative could be paired with adjectives: "Template:Lang," meaning "It must be propitious ... for the people."Template:Sfn The Umbrian dative could indicate the beneficiary or maleficiary of an action: this function, the dative of reference, appears in the sentence "Template:Lang" ("observe... divine omens for me, for the city of Iguvinum").Template:Sfn
Genitive
[edit]Like Latin, the genitive case was utilized to communicate both partitive and objective relationships between nouns. The partitive genitive, in which the genitive communicates that the noun is a smaller component of the genitive noun, appears in Umbrian sentences such as "Template:Lang," meaning "greater part of the [Arvales] brothers." However, unlike Latin, the partitive genitive in Umbrian may have also functioned as a subject in certain circumstances, a grammatical property that appears in Lithuanian, Avestan, and—rarely—Greek. This usage of the genitive is possibly attested in the sentence "," meaning "[whether] any of them are to be accepted." The genitive of possession, in which the genitive term is marked as the possessor, possibly appears in Umbrian sentences such as Template:Lang, translating to "for the people of the city of Iguvium." However, within this sentence, the genitive could either be functioning in its capacity as a partitive or possessive genitive. Likewise, the genitive of characteristic may appear in the sentence "Template:Lang," meaning "whoever is of the city of Tadinatus," although in this sentence the genitive may either be functioning as a genitive of characteristic or as a partitive genitive. The objective genitive, in which the genitive functions to communicate the object of nouns with verbal connotations, appears in Umbrian sentences such as "Template:Lang," meaning "dedication of the sacrificial animal," and "Template:Lang," meaning "confidence in the holy one."Template:Sfn
Ablative and locative
[edit]In contrast to Latin, in which the locative was reduced to rare and limited functions, the Umbrian locative retained much broader and more widespread use.Template:Sfn The Umbrian locative was used to signify the place something occurred; thus, Umbrian terms locatives such as Template:Lang, meaning "at Acedonia," and "Template:Lang," meaning "at [city of] Iguvium." Locative forms such as Template:Lang and Template:Lang, both of which refer to the time frame in which a specific individual held a political office, attest to the existence of a locative of time, which would indicate the time something occurred.Template:Sfn Ablative forms were also utilized to communicate locative meanings: Umbrian phrases such as "Template:Lang" ("sitting in the tent") utilize the ablative to indicate the location where something occurred.Template:Sfn The ablative, typically when accompanied by a preposition such as "Template:Lang" ("Template:Lang;" "out of," "from") or a postpositive marker such as "Template:Lang" or "Template:Lang," could also indicate movement from a location: the terms term "Template:Lang" ("from the field") and the sentence"Template:Lang" ("from this people") both demonstrate this function of the ablative.Template:Sfn Furthermore, the ablative in Umbrian could indicate the route through which movement had occurred: the sentence, "Template:Lang" ("go by the augural way"), exemplifies this usage."Template:Sfn Ablative forms could communicate the time something occurred, as demonstrated in the phrase "Template:Lang" ("in the middle of the prayer"). Both the ablative and locative appeared to be able to communicate the means by which in action occurred: the phrase "Template:Lang" ("to hold in the hand") utilizes the ablative form "Template:Lang" ("in the hand"), while the sentence "Template:Lang" ("to hold in the hand") utilizes the locative form Template:Lang to communicate a similar meaning.Template:Sfn
The ablative could also communicate the attendant circumstances surrounding an action, as demonstrated by sentences such as "Template:Lang" ("present to Jupiter with the same dedication").Template:Sfn More broadly, the Umbrian ablative could signify accompaniment; it could communicate that an action was occurring with or alongside something. Such a meaning appears in sentences such as "Template:Lang" ("stand with the assistants"), which utilize the preposition "Template:Lang" ("Template:Lang;" "with"). This preposition was dropped in scenarios where the notion of accompaniment could be substituted for the ablative of means or manner: "Template:Lang" ("go about [preform the lustration] with the bulls and the fire").Template:Sfn The preposition "Template:Lang" or "Template:Lang," when used as a postpositive marker of an ablative term, communicated a locative meaning: "Template:Lang" ("at the altar") and "Template:Lang" ("at the boundary").Template:Sfn Another, more miscellaneous usage of the Umbrian ablative is the ablative of price, which marks the cost of something: "Template:Lang" ("shall receive a perquisite of one sesterce for each person").Template:Sfn There is also limited attestation of an ablative absolute in Umbrian: "Template:Lang" ("when the birds have been observed").Template:Sfn The linguist Gary B. Holland suggests that it is possible this form merely constitutes a locative, as the locative plural is identical to the ablative plural in Umbrian.Template:Sfn
Declension
[edit]First Declension
[edit]The Umbrian first declension retained the elongated Template:Lang stem in the nominative singular, whereas in Latin it shortened to Template:Lang. However, the vowel "ā' in Umbrian became a more rounded vowel akin to the "a" in English "call."Template:Sfn Umbrian also retained the elongated Template:Lang stem in the accusative singular, although the final Template:Lang is often dropped in writing, likely because the final sound was pronounced so faintly that it was somewhat negligible. The accusative plural form derives from Proto-Italic Template:Lang, which evolved into Template:Lang. The final Template:Lang was pronounced so weakly that it is often dropped often from inscriptions, although this is more common in the later Iguvine tablets written in the Latin script than the older Iguvine tablets written in the Old Italic script.Template:Sfn For the dative singular, the Proto-Italic diphthong Template:Lang was monophthongized to Template:Lang. It was likely an open vowel as it is never misspelt with Template:Lang, which occurs frequently in the related Oscan language for terms with Template:Lang or Template:Lang in the final syllables.Template:Sfn Like Latin, Umbrian dropped the final Template:Lang at the end of words; thus, the ablative singular form in Umbrian evolved into Template:Lang from Template:Lang.Template:Sfn Umbrian inherited the genitive singular ending Template:Lang from Proto-Italic, which also appears in Old Latin and persisted into Classical Latin through terms such as Template:Lang. The genitive plural ending, Template:Lang, likely retained the long Template:Lang as—in neither Oscan nor Umbrian—is vowel contraction observed prior to the final consonants Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and Template:Lang.Template:Sfn Although there is no attested first declension vocative plural, the vocative singular likely appears in certain names and was likely marked by the ending Template:Lang. Buck concludes that it was likely a short vowel as it is never misspelt as Template:Lang in inscriptions. The locative singular ending is identical with that of the dative singular and the locative plural is identical with that of the ablative plural. In Umbrian inscriptions, the locative ending was often suffixed by the postpositive form Template:Lang, which was sometimes written separately from the word (for instance, "Template:Lang," meaning "to carry on a table") or merged with the term through contraction (see Template:Lang, meaning "into the field"). In some circumstances, the form altered to Template:Lang through contraction; for example, the term Template:Lang, meaning "at Acedonia."Template:Sfn There is also evidence of masculine proper names bearing the same Template:Lang stem of the first declension. Such names are occasionally borrowed from Greek, although they omit the final Template:Lang; names such as Template:Lang from Template:Lang ("Template:Lang," "Archias"). Other names end in Template:Lang and appear to derive from Italic sources, such as Template:Lang or Template:Lang. Only one oblique form for masculine first declension forms is attested: the accusative singular form Template:Lang. Another form, that possibly was a genitive singular of a masculine first declension term, is attested: Template:Lang.Template:Sfn
| First Declension Feminine | ||
|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Genitive | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Vocative | Template:Lang | |
| Locative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
Second declension
[edit]The Proto-Italic nominative singular ending Template:Lang lost the Template:Lang, leaving the Umbrian nominative singular ending Template:Lang, as represented by Umbrian terms such as Template:Lang ("quiet").Template:Sfn Umbrian preserved the Proto-Italic accusative plural ending Template:Lang, although it was represented in Umbrian by the graphemes Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and Template:Lang. The accusative singular form was merely the vowel Template:Lang, occasionally written orthographically as Template:Lang or Template:Lang, although it was more common for the final Template:Lang to be omitted. Thus, the Umbrian word for "people" can be written as Template:Lang or Template:Lang and as Template:Lang or Template:Lang, presumably because the final Template:Lang was pronounced so faintly that it was often ignored.Template:Sfn The accusative plural form Template:Lang, or Template:Lang, deriving from Proto-Italic Template:Lang, was also written without the final Template:Lang, presumably because the sound was also pronounced so weakly that writers often opted to neglect it.Template:Sfn During the transition from Proto-Italic, the dative singular form Template:Lang shortened to Template:Lang and then was monophthongized in Umbrian. Orthographically, it was written as Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and Template:Lang. Umbrian lost the final Template:Lang of the Proto-Italic ablative singular ending Template:Lang. The ablative singular was near unanimously transcribed as Template:Lang; the example Template:Lang constitutes the only definitive evidence of an ablative singular denoted by Template:Lang and the term Template:Lang, although it has also been interpreted as a locative singular marked by Template:Lang, may be interpreted as an ablative singular form.Template:Sfn The dative and ablative cases shared the same plural endings, which were orthographically represented by a multitude of forms:Template:Lang, Template:Lang , Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and Template:Lang. Of these endings, the most common is Template:Lang, with Template:Lang, Template:Lang appearing in over 100 inscriptions, although Template:Lang only appears in 7 inscriptions and Template:Lang appears in only 6.Template:Sfn Unlike the other second declension forms, which derived from Proto-Italic o-stem nouns, the genitive singular inherited the Template:Lang from the Proto-Italic i-stem declension.Template:Sfn It was typically represented in writing through the forms Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, although the endings Template:Lang and Template:Lang appear rarely.Template:Sfn In contrast, the genitive plural ending was inherited from the equivalent Proto-Italic o-stem form Template:Lang and was typically represented in Umbrian Template:Lang, Template:Lang, or Template:Lang.Template:Sfn The vocative singular form in Umbrian was Template:Lang and the locative singular was the long vowel Template:Lang, frequently—or perhaps always—compounded with the postpositive Template:Lang.Template:Sfn
Another subtype of the second declension appears in the second declension Template:Lang stem nouns, which derive from terms ending in Template:Lang or Template:Lang. The nominative and accusative singular in both masculine and neuter forms was marked by the phoneme Template:Lang, which could be written as Template:Lang or Template:Lang. However, these graphemes were relatively uncommon compared to the forms Template:Lang or Template:Lang,Template:Sfn which appear in terms such as the nominative or accusative singular neuter form Template:Lang or the accusative singular masculine form Template:Lang, both of which may derive from Template:Lang. Other irregular forms may surface in the hapax "Template:Lang" possibly was an Template:Lang stem noun that conveyed the short vowel Template:Lang through the ending Template:Lang, an orthographic choice that, although attested elsewhere in the language, remains uncommon. The term Template:Lang, possibly deriving from Template:Lang, may also have replaced the standard ending with Template:Lang.Template:Sfn The remaining forms are identical with those of the standard second declension endings, although in the ablative and dative singular and plural forms contraction is possible. This feature, which is more common in Late Iguvine writings than Early Iguvine, can be overserved in the dative singular form Template:Lang, which can be alternatively written as Template:Lang or Template:Lang.Template:Sfn
In addition to the masculine second declensions, there is also a slightly distinct morphology for neuter second declension forms. The only known differences between the second declension masculine and neuter forms appear in the nominative and accusative singular and plural: the neuter nominative and accusative singular are identical with each other and the masculine accusative singular, while the neuter accusative plural—which are also identical with each other—were represented by the ending Template:Lang and were represented orthographically by Template:Lang, Template:Lang, or Template:Lang.Template:Sfn There were other, rarer, endings utilize to mark the nominative or accusative neuter plural: the form Template:Lang is attested for the nominative plural and the forms Template:Lang or Template:Lang, which could also be written without the final Template:Lang, are attested as representations of the accusative plural.Template:Sfn Buck suggests that this irregularity possibly originated in the accusative plural before spreading the nominative; he suggests it was likely that it was motivated by the existence of parallel forms in the standard masculine nominative and accusative plural.Template:Sfn
Third declension
[edit]The Umbrian third declension, like the Latin third declension, merged forms from the Proto-Italic consonant stem and i-stem declensions. In Proto-Italic, the nominative singular of these declensions was Template:Lang and Template:Lang respectively. During the transition to Umbrian, the /i/ vowel was syncopated, producing a nominative singular ending Template:Lang for all third declension forms.Template:Sfn However, the nominative plural endings vary depending upon whether the term was inherited from the consonant or i-stem terms. I-stem terms likely inherited the ending Template:Lang, although the Oscan nominative plural formation "Template:Lang" Indicates that at least the Oscan language, and possibly the Osco-Umbrian languages at large, may have evolved the ending Template:Lang according to the model of the first and second declension forms Template:Lang and Template:Lang. Consonant stems syncopated the short vowel ending Template:Lang in Proto-Italic, resulting in a more unique evolution. The term Template:Lang, which is used in the nominative plural, presumably evolved from the from Template:Lang, which contracted to Template:Lang before arriving at Template:Lang. This term is also misspelt as Template:Lang in one inscription, which may provide evidence of compensatory lengthening.Template:Sfn
In the accusative singular, Umbrian i-stem forms inherited the Proto-Italic ending Template:Lang, which was often represented by the graphemes Template:Lang or Template:Lang, although the spelling Template:Lang occurs rarely. For consonant stems, the Proto-Italic ending Template:Lang was replaced by Template:Lang, which was borrowed from the second declension forms.Template:Sfn The accusative plural ending, in the i-stem, shifted the final Template:Lang in Proto-Italic Template:Lang to Template:Lang, resulting in the form Template:Lang. However, the Template:Lang was often omitted in writing and the Template:Lang could be rendered as Template:Lang, sometimes including Template:Lang; thus, forms such as "Template:Lang," "Template:Lang," and "Template:Lang" appear for "Template:Lang."Template:Sfn Consonant stems followed a more distinct evolution; although they contracted the Template:Lang in Proto-Italic Template:Lang to Template:Lang, they dropped the Template:Lang, leading to the form Template:Lang instead of the expected form Template:Lang. Such an evolution could theoretically have been explained through the syncopation of a short Template:Lang,Template:Sfn however the contraction of Template:Lang to Template:Lang appears to have been accompanied by the lengthening of the preceding vowel.Template:Sfn It is possible, although disputed, that the original Proto-Italic forms contained long vowels, allowing for an explanation of the unusual form through regular syncopation. Buck proposes that, in the absence of the aforementioned explanation, the form may have emerged due to the influence of the accusative plural forms of the other declensions, which were typically preceded by the same phonemes as the Template:Lang of the nominative plural.Template:Sfn
The i-stem forms developed the open vowel Template:Lang in the dative singular, which was represented by the graphemes Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and—occasionally—Template:Lang, although this form is of exceptional rarity.Template:Sfn I-stem forms also adopted an ablative singular form Template:Lang, which was represented orthographically by either Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and—rarely—Template:Lang. In consonant stems, the ablative singular ending was Template:Lang.Template:Sfn Umbrian consonant stem ablative singular forms are near-universally rendered as "Template:Lang" or "Template:Lang," with the exception of the term "Template:Lang" or " "Template:Lang" ("foot"), which is exclusively marked by the ending Template:Lang. The linguist Reuben J. Pitts regards this as a "lexical aberration," which may have resulted from influence by the i-stem forms.Template:Sfn Pitts suggests that the restricted orthographical representations of the consonant-stem ablative singular indicates that it likely was an open-mid vowel, as the close-mid vowel forms were often represented by the graphemes Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and Template:Lang. Moreover, Pitts argues that the ending was likely a short vowel as an—according to Pitts—a long vowel likely would have been raised to a close-mid vowel in Umbrian.Template:Sfn The dative-ablative plural form, in i-stems, evolved from the Proto-Italic from Template:Lang into Template:Lang, which became Template:Lang through syncopation. The ending Template:Lang is attested in one Oscan term, "Template:Lang," however all other Oscan and Umbrian forms showcases that the Template:Lang was assimilated, leading to the Template:Lang ending found in Umbrian terms such as "Template:Lang." However, it was alternatively written with the Template:Lang substituted for Template:Lang; thus, Umbrian forms such as "Template:Lang." Consonant stems inherited their dative and ablative plural forms from the Proto-Italic u-stem nouns, resulting in forms such as "Template:Lang" and "Template:Lang."Template:Sfn Both i-stem and consonant stem third declension forms inherited the Proto-Italic i-stem genitive singular form Template:Lang, which was orthographically represented by the forms Template:Lang and Template:Lang.Template:Sfn The third-declension locative singular ending is attested in terms such as "Template:Lang" and "Template:Lang," both of which were marked graphically by the ending Template:Lang, although considers it likely that consonant-stem forms had inherited the Proto-Italic ending Template:Lang while i-stem forms had inherited the Proto-Italic ending Template:Lang.Template:Sfn
Therre are also attestations of neuter forms for the third declension. Terms such as "Template:Lang" suggest that the Umbrian neuter nominative and accusative singular for third declension i-stem terms, like Latin, was marked by the ending Template:Lang, although other terms such as "Template:Lang" indicate that, also like Latin, the final Template:Lang could be omitted. There are a few examples of consonant stem third declension neuter nouns, such as "Template:Lang," "Template:Lang", and "Template:Lang." Consonant stem neuter nouns inherited the Template:Lang ending from Proto-Italic for the nominative and accusative plural, while i-stem nouns evolved the ending Template:Lang from Proto-Italic. The final Template:Lang would change regularly according to the standard phonological and graphical rules in Umbrian governing the form of the final Template:Lang vowel.Template:Sfn
| Third declension Consonant Stem | Third Declension i-Stem | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | |
| Accusative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang, Template:Lang | Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang |
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang | Template:Lang | |
| Genitive | Template:Lang, Template:Lang | Template:Lang, Template:Lang | ||
| Ablative | Template:Lang, Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Locative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
Fourth and fifth declensions
[edit]There is little attestation as the Umbrian fourth or fifth declension. The fourth declension accusative singular was seemingly represented orthographically by the form Template:Lang, which was often used to represent the ending Template:Lang in Umbrian writings. Nominative and accusative plural forms are attested for the fourth declension neuter. It is likely that the ending was Template:Lang, although it would have been represented orthographically in various ways according to the standard Umbrian writing conventions for final Template:Lang. Other forms attested to a genitive singular ending in Template:Lang, a dative singular in Template:Lang, an ablative singular form in Template:Lang, and a dative-ablative plural in Template:Lang. One locative form is attested: Template:Lang.Template:Sfn The majority of attested Umbrian fourth declension terms appear feminine or neuter, however the Umbrian form Template:Lang appears masculine in contrast to the feminine Latin cognate Template:Lang.Template:Sfn Few fifth declension forms are attested in Umbrian: the accusative plural "Template:Lang," the dative-ablative plural "Template:Lang," the dative singular "Template:Lang," the ablative singular "Template:Lang,"Template:Sfn and the form "Template:Lang," which serves as both a dative or ablative singular.Template:Sfn
| Fourth Declension Feminine | ||
|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | ||
| Accusative | Template:Lang | |
| Dative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Genitive | Template:Lang | |
| Ablative | Template:Lang | Template:Lang |
| Locative | Template:Lang | |
Adjectives and adverbs
[edit]Umbrian adjectives are declined according to the first and second or third declensions. The majority of attested Umbrian adjectives align with the first and second declension paradigms, although the few attested third declension adjectives are typically i-stem forms (such as "Template:Lang," from "Template:Lang").Template:Sfn Umbrian adverbs often derived their endings from the Proto-Italic ablatives Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang; thus, Umbrian "Template:Lang" ("Template:Lang;" "well"), "Template:Lang" (cognate with "Template:Lang", meaning "before," but the Umbrian term means "behind"), and Template:Lang ("Template:Lang;" "above").Template:Sfn Other adverbs, particularly those concerning time, derived from the Proto-Italic neuter accusative ending Template:Lang: "Template:Lang" ("Template:Lang;" "first").Template:Sfn Umbrian pronominal adverbs such as "Template:Lang ("Template:Lang;" "when")," presumably from "Template:Lang," also likely derived from Proto-Italic accusative neuter forms.Template:Sfn The Proto-Indo-European comparative suffixes Template:Lang and Template:Lang, which appear in Ancient Greek and Sanskrit, lost their comparative connotations and instead were used to form pronominal adjectives and adjectives associated with time or place: "Template:Lang" ("another") and "Template:Lang" ("after").Template:Sfn
Verbal system
[edit]Conjugation
[edit]The Umbrian first conjugation is distinguished by the thematic vowel Template:Lang in the present conjugation, although it typically appeared throughout the various inflected forms for each conjugation rather than exclusively the present.Template:Sfn However, rare perfect and perfect passive forms without the morpheme Template:Lang are attested, such as the terms Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and Template:Lang.Template:Sfn This irregularity also appears in a select few first conjugation Latin verbs, such as the perfect form Template:Lang from Template:Lang.Template:Sfn The inflected forms of the first conjugation were formed via the addition of the various suffixes that mark for person and number to the initial Template:Lang, a transformation likely accompanied either by the contraction of the stem, leaving either Template:Lang or Template:Lang before the suffix.Template:Sfn In Latin, second, third, or fourth conjugation verbs compounded with a preposition can transform into first conjugation verbs, consider the derivation of Template:Lang ("to dedicate") from Template:Lang ("to say"). Likewise, the equivalent Umbrian verb Template:Lang derives from the verb Template:Lang.Template:Sfn
The Umbrian second conjugation, like the Latin second conjugation, is identified by the presence of the long vowel Template:Lang in the present stem, although—like Latin—it is often absent from the perfect stem. In Latin, attested verbs such as Template:Lang from Template:Lang provide direct proof of the occasional, albeit rare, formation of perfect stem and passive participle with Template:Lang; however, the existing Umbrian corpus provides no evidence of such irregularities. Another second conjugation verb, Template:Lang (equivalent of Latin "Template:Lang," "[it] is suitable for"), suggests that the thematic vowel of second conjugation Umbrian verbs could have alternated to Template:Lang. It is also possible that Template:Lang was a rare marker for the Umbrian second conjugation: it appears in one verb, Template:Lang, although this term may have been a fourth conjugation verb.Template:Sfn The Umbrian third conjugation is marked by the short vowel Template:Lang just as in Latin, although Umbrian lacks third conjugation Template:Lang verbs, which appear in Latin in verbs such Template:Lang, from Template:Lang). These verbs, throughout all Italic languages, derive from the Template:Lang variant verbs in Proto-Italic, each of which—likely through vowel syncopation—evolved into a largely regularly-conjugated third or fourth conjugation verb in Umbrian whereas in Latin they constitute their own unique class between the third and fourth conjugations.Template:Sfn Examples of Umbrian verbs with reduplicated stems, akin to Latin verbs such as Template:Lang, appear Umbrian third conjugation verbs such as Template:Lang, the exact equivalent of Latin Template:Lang.Template:Sfn However, other Umbrian verbs potentially showcase the loss of reduplication; for instance, the verb Template:Lang, possibly from Template:Lang.Template:Sfn Fourth conjugation Umbrian verbs, like Latin, are marked by the phoneme Template:Lang in the present stem. Furthermore, like Latin, perfect forms may lack Template:Lang: Umbrian Template:Lang is a form of the fourth conjugation Umbrian verb Template:Lang.Template:Sfn
Present active infinitive forms in Umbrian took the ending Template:Lang, which likely derived from a Proto-Italic accusative formation. However, perfect passive infinitive forms were created through the present infinitive of the Umbrian verb for "to be" with a perfect passive participle. For instance, the Umbrian perfect passive infinitives "Template:Lang" (in Latin, "Template:Lang") and "Template:Lang" (in Latin, "Template:Lang"), meaning "to be cared for" and "to be sent from" respectively.Template:Sfn There is limited evidence confirming the existence of supine forms in Umbrian akin to Latin: the only definitive example of a supine formation in Umbrian appears in the phrase Template:Lang, equivalent to Latin "Template:Lang," meaning "[who] shall go to observe."Template:Sfn
Perfect formation
[edit]Perfect stem
[edit]Like other Italic languages, the Umbrian language merged the aorist and perfect tense found in Proto-Italic and Proto-Indo-European, although the Sabellic languages, a language family of which Umbrian is a member, preserved the forms of the Proto-Indo-European athematic second aorist while Latin preserved the perfect forms of Proto-Indo-European. These etymological differences created numerous morphological discrepancies between the Sabellic languages and the Latino-Faliscan languages, the subgroup of Italic languages containing Latin. In Umbrian, the perfect subjunctive was marked by the addition of the vowel Template:Lang to the ending while in Latin, it was marked by the vowel Template:Lang.Template:Sfn Umbrian perfect stems likely could be formed by 5 distinct types of modification applied to the present stem of the verb: reduplication, the simple perfect, k-perfect, f-perfect, and—a form exclusive to Umbrian—the nky-perfect.Template:Sfn Reduplication was the most common method of forming the perfect in the original Proto-Indo-European language and it typically involved the addition of the vowel Template:Lang following the reduplicated syllable. Remnants of this technique appear in Umbrian verbs such as Template:Lang, in which the initial consonant of Template:Lang is reduplicated with an Template:Lang vowel added between the two letters. However, perfect forms that are—in origin—reduplicated perfects may not follow this pattern.Template:Sfn This category, referred to as the "simple perfects," comprise verbs such as Template:Lang, which likely derives from Template:Lang, the perfect stem of the Proto-Italic verb Template:Lang. Although the original form was reduplicated according to the aforementioned pattern, the Template:Lang changed to Template:Lang during the transition from Proto-Italic to Umbrian.Template:Sfn
Umbrian perfect forms such as Template:Lang demonstrate the f-perfect, a type of modification that forms perfect stems through the addition of the consonant Template:Lang. The origin of this type of augment is unclear, although it may have derived from the univerbation of older terms. For instance, in the case of Template:Lang, the term may have originated from the Template:Lang, although this etymology specifically is disputed.Template:Sfn In Umbrian, perfect stems possibly could be marked through the addition of the consonant Template:Lang, a modification that likely originates from the original sigmatic aorist of the Proto-Indo-European language. This form, the s-perfect, is entirely unattested in Umbrian with the possible exception of one form: Template:Lang. However, this form is more often interpreted as a reduplicated perfect, leaving no evidence of the existence of s-perfects in Umbrian and thus compelling some linguists to reject the existence of such forms in the language.Template:Sfn
The perfect marker Template:Lang, Template:Lang, or Template:Lang appears in Umbrian terms such as Template:Lang and Template:Lang.Template:Sfn The etymological origins of this root are unclear, it may have emerged from a reconstructed Proto-Italic form Template:Lang, itself possibly related to Proto-Indo-European Template:Lang ("to bear, to bring.").Template:Sfn This form was preserved into the Ancient Greek term Template:Lang (Template:Lang), the aorist form of Template:Lang ("Template:Lang," "to bear," to "bring") and the Old Irish suffix Template:Lang, found as a marker of perfective aspect in forms such Template:Lang, the perfect stem of Template:Lang ("to give," "to bring").Template:Sfn The linguist Kenneth Shields, Jr. argued that this perfect ending originated from the combination of third-person singular forms ending in Template:Lang with the deictic particle Template:Lang, creating Template:Lang. According to Shields, this form was later reanalyzed to produce Template:Lang and was then suffixed with Template:Lang, culminating in the form Template:Lang. This form may have then been reanalyzed as Template:Lang, concluding the process of evolution and creating the Umbrian perfect morpheme.Template:Sfn Shields proposes that the term may be cognate with the Lithuanian imperative suffix Template:Lang and that the deictic particle Template:Lang can be observed in terms such as Latin Template:Lang ("on," "to this," "on this side") or Ancient Greek Template:Lang (Template:Lang, "this year").Template:Sfn The linguist David Jerrett, noting that perfect marker exclusively appears in denominal verbs, argued that the perfect stem originated from nouns combined with the perfect forms of an unattested Umbrian verb deriving from Proto-Indo-European Template:Lang (meaning, "to lie down, to settle"), which may have developed a new meaning akin to "to set in motion, be in motion." Such a semantic shift occurred in other Indo-European languages: the Ancient Greek verbs "Template:Lang" ("Template:Lang," "to set in motion, stir, meddle") or "Template:Lang" ("Template:Lang," "to go") and the Latin verb Template:Lang ("to set in motion, move, stir") all demonstrate this transformation.Template:Sfn When certain nouns were used alongside this unattested verb in periphrastic phrases, they may have merged together to create new verbs. Jerrett cites one possible example of such a development in the verb Template:Lang, which may have originated from the reconstructed noun Template:Lang combined with the verb form 3rd person singular future perfect active form Template:Lang.Template:Sfn Thus, Jerret proposes a semantic shift from "Template:Lang Template:Lang," meaning "has made an announcement," to "Template:Lang," meaning "has announced."Template:Sfn
Future perfect formation
[edit]Uniquely, Sabellic future perfects are marked with the ending Template:Lang and, in some cases, Template:Lang. The "Template:Lang" form appeared as, in Umbrian, intervocalic -Template:Lang- became Template:Lang.Template:Sfn Both forms are of disputed etymology: it is possible that it relates to the Proto-Italic form Template:Lang, from the Proto-Indo-European form Template:Lang. These verbs, both meaning "to be," evolved into the Umbrian form Template:Lang, which possibly predicated the development of the similar future perfect endings. However, the linguist Nicholas Zair suggests that, given the dual meaning of Template:Lang as both a future and future perfect term,Template:Sfn it is unlikely that it would evolve into an exclusively future perfect suffix. Furthermore, Zair considers it unlikely that the term would be reanalyzed into a unique suffix as it already consists of Template:Lang combined with the future marker Template:Lang.Template:Sfn One proposal to rectify these concerns suggests that the suffix may originate from a reduplicated future perfect stem Template:Lang , which, although formed from Template:Lang, came to be reanalyzed as Template:Lang.Template:Sfn Alternatively, it may have emerged due to the generalization of the zero-grade Proto-Indo-European perfect active participle root Template:Lang or the lengthened grade Template:Lang , itself possibly from Template:Lang. In either scenario, the forms would yield to Template:Lang in Umbrian due to inevitable loss of initial Template:Lang after most consonants and the loss of long Template:Lang in Oscan-Umbrian in non-initial syllables.Template:Sfn However, the linguist Madison Beeler critiqued this theory, arguing that there is insufficient evidence for the existence of a perfect active participle in any Italic language related to the Proto-Indo-European perfect active participle, and consequently no evidence for the existence of such a form of Proto-Italic.Template:Sfn
Another possibility is that this form is related the u-perfect in Latin, as seen in verbs such as Template:Lang or Template:Lang.Template:Sfn This theory holds that the original Sabellic future marker, Template:Lang, likely combined with a perfect marker in Template:Lang to form the Umbrian future perfect form Template:Lang.Template:Sfn Zair suggests that, although the Umbrian future perfect form was based on an original Sabellic perfect ending, it is entirely unrelated to the Latin Template:Lang perfect.Template:Sfn Instead, Zair argues that it was likely related to the possible South Picene Template:Lang perfect formation, which is represented orthographically by Template:Lang and may appear in terms such as Template:Lang (meaning, "they set up").Template:Sfn According to Zair, the original Proto-Indo-European language formulated perfect terms through the reduplication of the initial consonant and the shift of the root into the o-grade, leading the creation of a perfect stem Template:Lang that was transformed into a future perfect stem in Proto-Sabellic through the addition of the morpheme Template:Lang. Zair continues, proposing that the Proto-Sabellic language likely utilized the Template:Lang morpheme in its perfect and aorist tenses, although these were largely lost during the generalization of the perfect stems following the loss of the aorist tense, leaving the future perfect form as the only remnant of the original Template:Lang stem as there were no aorist parallels.Template:Sfn
Voice
[edit]The Umbrian language inflected for two voices: the active, which concerned verbs performed by the subject, and the passive, which concerned verbs performed upon the subject. In Umbrian, the passive voice may have additionally partially fulfilled the role of the middle voice: The Umbrian verb Template:Lang, a passive form, was utilized to express the middle meaning of "to raise, elevate oneself;" "to rise." Like Latin, the Umbrian language contained deponent verbs, verbs that—although passive in form—conveyed active meanings. However, terms that are deponent in Latin are regular in Umbrian and vice versa: the regular Umbrian verb Template:Lang is contrasted with the deponent Latin verb Template:Lang whereas the Umbrian deponent Template:Lang is equivalent to the Latin active form Template:Lang, an inflection oft the verb Template:Lang.Template:Sfn
Moods
[edit]The Umbrian language inflects for three grammatical moods: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. In the Umbrian language, relative clauses are exclusively attested as utilizing the indicative; although, evidence from the closely related Oscan language indicates that it may have been possible to employ the subjunctive in relative clauses that expressed characteristic.Template:Sfn Like Latin, the Umbrian subjunctive comprises the old functions of the original Proto-Italic optative and subjunctive, which fused together during the transition from Proto-Italic to Latin and Umbrian. Both the Latin and Umbrian languages exclusively preserved traces of the original optative in subjunctive inflections of verbs that derive from athematic Proto-Italic verbs:Template:Sfn the athematic irregular Proto-Italic verb Template:Lang, with the optative 3rd person singular inflection Template:Lang, evolved into Latin Template:Lang and the equivalent Umbrian form Template:Lang.Template:Sfn Umbrian and Latin are largely identical in their choice of derivation from either the Proto-Italic subjunctive or optative for their subjunctive forms respectively, although the Umbrian perfect subjunctive forms derive from the Proto-Italic subjunctive whereas in Latin they derive from the optative.Template:Sfn Umbrian and Latin both contain the vowel Template:Lang in the endings for the subjunctive forms of the second, third, and fourth conjugations (compare Latin Template:Lang and Umbrian Template:Lang), while first conjugation verbs shift the Template:Lang vowel in the stem to Template:Lang.Template:Sfn One possible exception to this rule appears in the Umbrian verb Template:Lang, which may constitute an Template:Lang subjunctive of a third conjugation Template:Lang verb, although this form may be explained as a perfect indicative form based on the perfect stem of the verb.Template:Sfn The Umbrian present imperative is exclusively attested in two first conjugation forms: Template:Lang ("observe") and Template:Lang ("bargain"), both substituting the final Template:Lang for Template:Lang. All other known Umbrian imperatives represent the future imperative.Template:Sfn
The Subjunctive in Umbrian could also be used to express orders; the subjunctive of command is the most frequently appearing usage of the subjunctive in the Umbrian corpus. This jussive function of the subjunctive appears throughout the Iguvine tablets, which decree "Template:Lang," meaning "[the Flamen] shall have the care of the sacred affair; he shall furnish whatever is necessary."Template:Sfn Carl Darling Buck, an American philologist, argued that, in the attested Umbrian corpus, the jussive subjunctive and the imperative were used largely interchangeably.Template:Sfn However, the linguist D.M. Jones suggests that, while the imperative considered specific instructions, the jussive subjunctive was largely limited to descriptions of duties or punishments for officials.Template:Sfn Thus, the aforementioned sentences utilized the subjunctive as they were outlining ritual practices for Flamini, while statements such as "Template:Lang" (Jupiter Grabovius, purify!) utilize the imperative.Template:Sfn In negative commands, which call for something to not occur, Umbrian primarily utilizes the imperative, although the subjunctive form Template:Lang appears in one inscription to mean "let them not use."Template:Sfn Furthermore, this term appears to violate the previously established distinction between the subjunctive and the imperative, as it used as an explicit instruction. The full sentence, reading "Template:Lang," may translate to "When he has purified the jar, thereafter they shall not use any of that mead."Template:Sfn This interpretation proposes that the subjunctive form constitutes a special instruction outside of the original description of the ritual, thereby fitting the standard pattern of subjunctive use. However, Jones instead opts to resolve this anomaly with the translation "during the preliminary purification of the Template:Lang the aforesaid mead is not to be used." Jones argues that this interpretation is not just a more accurate translation but also ensures consistency with the standard rules of the Umbrian subjunctive as—in his version—the prohibitive command is distinct from the actual section of the description of the ritual that first mentions the mead, and thus, there is some level of discontinuity between the two pieces of the text.Template:Sfn The Umbrian subjunctive and imperative also seemingly shared the capacity to express optative meanings, a function that—in Latin—is fulfilled by the subjunctive of wish. The Iguvine tablets contain the phrase "Template:Lang," reading "may you be favorable, be propitious," which utilizes the subjunctive forms for optative meanings. However, it later contains a phrase of identical meaning which employs the imperative: "Template:Lang."Template:Sfn
Instances of a subjunctive of cause, in which the subjunctive is used in tandem with clauses of cause and result, are also attested in Umbrian. These clauses are typically introduced with the term Template:Lang, the Umbrian equivalent of Latin Template:Lang, meaning—in such clauses—"so that."Template:Sfn However, such clauses can also be introduced without the conjunction: the phrase Template:Lang, reading "demand that I observe," expresses a meaning that can be translated into English utilizing the word "that," but lacks the equivalent Umbrian conjunction.Template:Sfn Another Umbrian conjunction, Template:Lang or—alternatively—Template:Lang, meaning "if" (compare Latin "Template:Lang"), was involved in indirect questions: the Umbrian sentence "Template:Lang." reading "if the greater part of the Atiedii brothers announce it to not be properly cared for, then the magister or the quaestor should ask the brothers how many flamini there are."Template:Sfn The conjunctions Template:Lang and Template:Lang were also often used to introduce conditional clauses, which typically contained two components: a main verb in the imperative or subjunctive of command, followed by a secondary statement completed with a verb in the future or future perfect tense. However, scant evidence has been preserved indicating that the present or perfect subjunctive may have also fulfilled this function.Template:Sfn One example of a conditional clause without an introductory conjunction appears in the Iguvine tablets, which stipulates "Template:Lang," meaning "if the flamen wishes to make the sacrifice, it is proper."Template:Sfn Jones suggests that the uses of the subjunctive may have extended to invocation, citing another passage from the Iguvine tablets which reads "Template:Lang." According to Jones, this statement utilizes a subjunctive form of "Template:Lang" to mean "Jupiter Grabovius, I invoke thee."Template:Sfn
Participles
[edit]The Umbrian language contained a present active participle attested in a handful of words, including "Template:Lang" ("sitting") and "Template:Lang" ("standing, stopping").Template:Sfn Umbrian also contained a gerundive, a future passive participle, with forms marked by Template:Lang in contrast to the Latin gerundive marker Template:Lang. Few gerundive Umbrian forms are attested, although the terms "Template:Lang" ("which is to be appeased"), Template:Lang (possibly means "which is to be buried"), and "Template:Lang" ("which is to be carried around") are known.Template:Sfn Perfect passive conjugations in Umbrian were formed via the combination of the perfect passive participle with the present form of the verb "to be." For instance, the Umbrian perfect passive formation "Template:Lang" ("it has been written"). Likewise, Umbrian future perfect passive conjugations could be formed via the combination of the perfect passive participle with the future form of the verb "to be." For example, the Umbrian phrase "Template:Lang," meaning "it will have been appeased." It is also possible that, like in Latin, Umbrian future perfect passive forms could be generated through the combination of the passive participle with the future perfect form of the verb "to be." Such as feature may be attested in the phrase "Template:Lang," possibly meaning "it will have arisen."Template:Sfn However, Zair postulates that the term Template:Lang may be alternatively interpreted as an orthographical mistake: the author may have intended to write Template:Lang but began writing Template:Lang, a term which appears in the ensuing sentence.Template:Sfn Vittore Pisani, an Italian linguist, suggested the form may have been perfect form marked by the suffix Template:Lang, equivalent to the Latin third-person plural active perfect suffix -Template:Lang, although Zair considers a perfect formation semantically unfeasible given the context of the sentence. Another proposal suggests that the term may have constituted an imperfect subjunctive equivalent to Old Latin Template:Lang, although such a usage of the imperfect subjunctive in the context of the statement is not paralleled in other Italic languages.Template:Sfn
Endings
[edit]Verbs in Umbrian are inflected for the following categories:Template:Sfn
- Tense (present, future, perfect, and future perfect)
- Voice (active, deponent/passive)
- Mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive)
- Person (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
- Number (singular, plural)
Present, future and future perfect forms in the active voice use the following set of personal endings (primary):Template:Sfn
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | -ō | |
| 2nd | -s | |
| 3rd | -t | -nt |
Perfect indicative and all tenses of the subjunctive in the active voice use a different set of endings (secondary):Template:Sfn
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | -m | |
| 2nd | -s | |
| 3rd | -∅ | -ns |
Passive endings are attested only for the 3rd person: singular primary -ter, singular secondary -(n)tur, plural -endi.Template:Sfn
Perfect stems are derived from the present stem in different ways. Latin -vī- perfects are not attested in Umbrian.Template:Sfn Instead, Umbrian uses its own set of forms, including reduplicated perfects such as dede 'gave', the -s- suffix, as in sesu-s-t 'will have sat', and the -nçi- suffix, as in purdi-nçi-ust 'will have presented'. Some verbs also use suppletive forms.Template:Sfn
Other tenses are formed by suffixation:Template:Sfn
| Mood | Tense | Stem | Suffix | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Indicative | Future | Present | -(e)s- | prupeha-s-t 'piabit'Template:Sfn |
| Future perfect | Perfect | -us- | fak-us-t'Template:Sfn | |
| Subjunctive | Present | Present | -iā- (for a-stems), -ā- (for other stems) | 'habi-a 'should hold' |
| Perfect | Perfect | -ē- | heriieiTemplate:Sfn |
The following non-finite forms are attested (all of them are based on the present stem):Template:Sfn
| Form | Suffix | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Present active participle | -nt- | kutef 'murmuring' (-f < *-ns < *-nts) |
| Past participle | -to- | çersnatur 'having dined' (Nom.pl. masc.) |
| Present active infinitive | -om | er-om 'to be' |
| Present passive infinitive | -fi/-fir | piha-fi 'to be expiated' |
| Supine | -to(m) | aseriato 'for the purpose of observing' |
| Gerundive | -nno- | pihaner 'purify' (Gen.sg. masc.) |
Phonological history
[edit]Shared changes
[edit]Umbrian shares some phonological changes with its sister language Oscan.
Labialization of *kʷ to p
[edit]This change is shared with Umbrian, and so is a common Sabellic change, reminiscent of the k/p split between Goidellic (Irish, etc) and Brythonic (Welsh, etc). piře, pirse "what"; Oscan pídum vs Latin quid.<ref>Poultney, J.W. "Bronze Tables of Iguvium" 1959 p. 65. https://archive.org/details/bronzetablesofig00poul/page/n19/mode/2up</ref>
Initial stress and syncope
[edit]At some point early in the history of all Indo-European Italic languages, the accent seems to have shifted to the initial syllable of words as a stress accent, since non-initial syllables are regularly lost or weakened. Since the same pattern occurs in the history of Etruscan, this must be assumed to be an areal feature. (By the time of classical Latin, the accent had shifted in that language to more of an Ancient Greek pattern--on the third syllable from the end (antepenult) unless the last syllable was long, in which case it fell on the second to last syllable (the penult).) Template:Sfn The degree to which these shifts can be connected to similar shifts to initial stress in Celtic and Germanic is unclear; for discussion see J. Salmons' Accentual Change and Language Contact. <ref>Salmons, Joseph (1992), Accentual Change and Language Contact, Stanford University Press</ref>
Examples: Loss of unstressed short -e-: *onse "shoulder" < *omesei, compare Latin umerus; destre "on the right" < *deksiterer; ostendu "present" (imperative) < *obs-tendetōd, compare Latin ostendito.<ref>Poultney, J.W. "Bronze Tables of Iguvium" 1959 p. 45 https://archive.org/details/bronzetablesofig00poul/page/n19/mode/2up</ref>
Innovations unique to Umbrian (or not shared with Oscan)
[edit]But compared to its highly conservative sister language Oscan, Umbrian exhibits a number of innovations, some of them shared by its neighbor to the west, Latin. (Below, following convention, bold text for Umbrian and Oscan indicates words written in the native, Etruscan derived script, while italics represents words written in Latin-derived script.)
Treatment of original diphthongs
[edit]All diphthongs are simplified into monophthongs, a process only partly seen in Latin, and only very rarely in Oscan. So Proto-Italic *ai and *ei become Umbrian low ē: kvestur : Oscan kvaísstur, Latin quaestor 'official in charge of public revenue and expenditure'; prever 'single' : Oscan preivatud, Latin prīvus; furthermore, Proto-Italic *oi, *ou and *au become ō (written u in the native script) in initial syllables: unu 'one' : Old Latin oinus; ute 'or' : Oscan auti, Latin aut; tuta 'city' : Oscan touto.Template:Sfn
Palatalization of velars
[edit]Velars are palatalized and spirantized before front vowels and the front glide /j/ to probably a palatalized sibilant (perhaps the postalveolar /ʃ/), written ç, ś or simply s. (A similar change happened later in most Romance languages.) For example: Umbrian śesna 'dinner' : Oscan kersnu, Latin cēna; Umbrian façiu 'I do, I make' : Latin faciō. Template:Sfn
Rhotacism
[edit]Like Latin, but unlike Oscan, intervocalic -s- rhotacized to -r- in Umbrian. In late forms of the language, final -s also becomes -r (a change not seen in Latin). For example, the genitive plural ending of -ā stems: Umbrian -arum, Latin -arum vs Oscan -asúm (compare Sanskrit -āsām). Template:Sfn
Treatment of *d
[edit]While initial *d- is preserved (spelled t in the native alphabet), earlier intervocalic *-d- (and sometimes *-l-) show up in the native alphabet as a character generally transliterated as ř, but as the sequence rs in Umbrian texts using the Latin alphabet. The exact pronunciation is unknown: piře, pirse "what" vs. Oscan pídum, Latin quid.Template:Sfn
Vowels
[edit]Proto-italic *ū became /i/, sim (accusative singular) <PI *sūm "pig" Template:Sfn
Sample texts
[edit]Taken from the Iguvine Tablets, tablet Va, lines 6–10 (written in the native alphabet on the tablet):
In Latin: Template:Block indent
In English: Template:Block indent<ref>Buck, C. D. A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian. p. 301 </ref>
Taken from the Iguvine Tablets, tablet VIa, lines 25–31 (written in the Latin alphabet on the tablet):
In Latin:
In English:
References
[edit]Sources
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Further reading
[edit]- Buck, Carl Darling. 1979. A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian: With a Collection of Inscriptions and a Glossary. Hildesheim: Olms.
- ————. 2001. A Vocabulary of Umbrian: Including the Umbrian Glosses. Bristol, PA: Evolution Publishing.
- Clackson, James. 2015. "Subgrouping in the Sabellian Branch of Indo‐European." Transactions of the Philological Society 113 (1): 4–37.
- Poultney, James. 1959. The bronze tables of Iguvium. Philological Monographs 18. Baltimore: American Philological Association.
- Untermann, Jürgen. Wörterbuch des Oskisch-Umbrischen. Heidelberg, Germany: Universitätsverlag C. Winter, 2000.
- Wallace, Rex E. “Sabellian Languages.” In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Ancient Languages, ed.Roger D. Woodard, 812–839. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
- Weiss, Michael L. 2010. Language and Ritual In Sabellic Italy: The Ritual Complex of the Third and the Fourth Tabulae Iguvinae. Leiden: Brill.
- Whatmough, Joshua. "A New Umbrian Inscription of Assisi." Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 50 (1939): 89-93. Accessed May 5, 2020. doi:10.2307/310593.
External links
[edit]Template:Library resources box
- Template:Cite web
- Template:Cite EB1911 — with details of the Umbrian language