Editing Luganda (section)

== Phonology ==
A notable feature of Luganda phonology is its [[geminate consonant]]s and distinctions between [[long vowel|long]] and [[short vowel|short]] vowels. Speakers generally consider consonantal gemination and vowel lengthening to be two manifestations of the same effect, which they call simply "doubling" or "stressing".

Luganda is also a [[tonal language]]; the change in the pitch of a syllable can change the meaning of a word.  For example, the word {{lang|lg|kabaka}} means 'king' if all three syllables are given the same pitch.  If the first syllable is high then the meaning changes to 'the little one catches' (third person singular present tense Class VI {{lang|lg|ka}}- of -{{lang|lg|baka}} 'to catch').  This feature makes Luganda a difficult language for speakers of non-tonal languages to learn. A non-native speaker has to learn the variations of pitch by prolonged listening.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Stevick|Kamoga|1970}}</ref>

Unlike some other Bantu languages, there is no tendency in Luganda for penultimate vowels to become long; in fact they are very frequently short, as in the city name [[Kampala]] {{lang|lg|Kámpalâ}}, pronounced {{IPA|[káámpálâ]}}, in which the second vowel is short in Luganda.<ref>''Luganda Basic Course'', p.105.</ref>

=== Vowels ===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+Luganda vowels
!
! scope="col" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! scope="col" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- align=center
! scope="row" | [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}
| {{IPA link|u}}
|- align=center
! scope="row" | [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}}
| {{IPA link|o}}
|- align=center
! scope="row" | [[Open vowel|Open]]
|colspan=2| {{IPA link|a}}
|}

All five vowels have two forms: [[long vowel|long]] and [[short vowel|short]]. The distinction is phonemic but can occur only in certain positions. After two consonants, the latter being a [[semivowel]], all vowels are long. The [[vowel quality|quality]] of a vowel is not affected by its length.

Long vowels in Luganda are very long, more than twice the length of a short vowel. A vowel before a [[prenasalised consonant]], as in {{lang|lg|Bugáńda}} '[[Buganda]]' is also lengthened, although it is not as long as a long vowel; laboratory measurements show that the vowel + nasal takes the same length of time to say as a long vowel.<ref>Hubbard (1995), p.183.</ref> Before a [[geminate consonant|geminate]], all vowels are short. A segment such as {{lang|lg|tugg}}, where a short vowel is followed by a geminate consonant, is very slightly shorter than {{lang|lg|tuuk}} or {{lang|lg|tung}}.

=== Consonants ===
The table below gives the consonant set of Luganda, grouping [[voiceless consonant|voiceless]] and [[voiced consonant|voiced]] consonants together in a cell where appropriate, in that order.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! scope="col" | [[bilabial consonant|Labial]]
! scope="col" | [[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! scope="col" | [[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! scope="col" | [[velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
|{{IPA link|p}} {{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|t}} {{IPA link|d}}
|{{IPA link|c}} {{IPA link|ɟ}} {{r|footnote3|group=decimal}}
|{{IPA link|k}} {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|{{IPA link|f}} {{IPA link|v}} {{r|footnote2|group=decimal}}
|{{IPA link|s}} {{IPA link|z}}
|
|
|-
! scope="row" | [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}}
|{{IPA link|ɲ}}
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
|rowspan=2|{{IPA link|l}}~{{IPA link|r}} {{r|footnote1|group=decimal}}
|{{IPA link|j}}
|{{IPA link|w}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|
|
|}
{{reflist|group=decimal|refs=
<ref name=footnote1>The [[liquid consonant|liquids]] {{IPA|[l]}} and {{IPA|[r]}} are [[allophones]] of a single [[phoneme]] {{IPA|/l~r/}}, although the distinction is reflected in the orthography.</ref>
<ref name=footnote2>The [[labiodental consonant|labiodental]] [[fricative consonant|fricatives]] {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/v/}} are slightly [[labialization|labialised]] and so could also be transcribed {{IPA|[fʷ]}} and {{IPA|[vʷ]}} respectively.</ref>
<ref name=footnote3>The [[palatal consonant|palatal]] [[plosive consonant|plosives]] {{IPA|/c/}} and {{IPA|/ɟ/}} may be realised with some [[affricate consonant|affrication]]—either as {{IPA|[cç]}} and {{IPA|[ɟʝ]}} or as [[postalveolar consonant|postalveolars]] {{IPA|[tʃ]}} and {{IPA|[dʒ]}}</ref> respectively.}}

Apart from {{IPA|/l~r/}}, all these consonants can be [[gemination|geminated]], even at the start of a word: {{lang|lg|bbiri}} {{IPA|/bːíri/}} 'two', ''{{lang|lg|kitto}}'' {{IPA|/cítːo/}} 'cold'. The [[approximant consonant|approximants]] {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/j/}} are geminated as {{IPA|/ɡːw/}} and {{IPA|/ɟː/}}: {{lang|lg|eggwanga}} {{IPA|/eɡːwáːŋɡa/}} 'country'; {{lang|lg|jjenje}} {{IPA|/ɟːéːɲɟe/}} 'cricket'—from the roots -{{lang|lg|wanga}} {{IPA|/wáːŋɡa/}} and -{{lang|lg|yenje}} {{IPA|/jéːɲɟe/}} respectively, with the singular noun prefix {{lang|lg|e}}- that doubles the following consonant.

Historically, geminated consonants appear to have arisen when a very close {{IPA|[i]}} between two consonants dropped out; for example -{{lang|lg|dduka}} from *-{{lang|lg|jiduka}} 'run'.<ref>Dutcher & Paster (2008), p.130.</ref>

Apart from {{IPA|/l~r/}}, {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}, all consonants can also be [[prenasalised stop|prenasalised]] (prefixed with a [[nasal stop]]). This consonant will be {{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}}, {{IPA|[ɲ]}} {{IPA|[ɱ]}} or {{IPA|[ŋ]}} according to the [[place of articulation]] of the consonant which follows, and belongs to the same syllable as that consonant.

The [[liquid consonant|liquid]] {{IPA|/l~r/}} becomes {{IPA|/d/}} when [[gemination|geminated]] or [[prenasalised stop|prenasalised]]. For example, {{lang|lg|ndaba}} {{IPA|/n̩dába/}} 'I see' (from the root -{{lang|lg|laba}} with the subject prefix {{lang|lg|n}}-); {{lang|lg|eddagala}} {{IPA|/edːáɡala/}} 'leaf' (from the root -{{lang|lg|lagala}} with the singular noun prefix {{lang|lg|e}}-, which doubles the following consonant).

A consonant cannot be both geminated and prenasalised. When [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] processes require this, the gemination is dropped and the syllable {{IPA|/zi/}} is inserted, which can then be prenasalised. For example, when the prefix {{lang|lg|en}}- is added to the adjective -{{lang|lg|ddugavu}} 'black' the result is {{lang|lg|enzirugavu}} {{IPA|/eːnzíruɡavu/}}.

The [[nasal stop|nasals]] {{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/ɲ/}} and {{IPA|/ŋ/}} can be [[syllable|syllabic]] at the start of a word: {{lang|lg|nkima}} {{IPA|/ɲ̩címa/}} (or {{IPA|[n̩tʃíma]}}) 'monkey', {{lang|lg|mpa}} {{IPA|/m̩pá/}} 'I give', {{lang|lg|nnyinyonnyola}} {{IPA|/ɲ̩ɲiɲóɲːola/}} or {{IPA|/ɲːiɲóɲːola/}} 'I explain'. Note that this last example can be analysed in two ways, reflecting the fact that there is no distinction between prenasalisation and gemination when applied to nasal stops.

===Tone===
{{Main|Luganda tones}}

Luganda is a [[tonal language]], with three tones: high ({{IPA|á}}), low ({{IPA|à}}) and falling ({{IPA|â}}). There are, however, no syllables in Luganda with rising tone {{IPA|[àá]}}, since these automatically become {{IPA|[áá]}}.<ref>''Luganda Basic Course'', p.xiii.</ref><ref>Hyman & Katamba (1993), p.56.</ref>

There are various types of tones: (a) lexical tones, which are always present in a word, e.g. {{lang|lg|ekib'''ú'''ga}} 'city'; (b) phrasal tones, which are automatically added to a word in certain contexts, but which are absent in other contexts (e.g. {{lang|lg|ekítábó}} or {{lang|lg|ekitabo}} 'book'); (c) plateaux tones, where the pitch remains high between two lexical tones, e.g. {{lang|lg|<u>k'''í'''rí mú Úg'''áń'''</u>da}} 'it is in Uganda'; (d) grammatical tones, which are associated with certain tenses or uses of the verb; (e) boundary tones, which affect the last syllable of a word or phrase and can indicate such things as interrogation.

According to one analysis, tones are carried on [[mora (linguistics)|morae]]. In Luganda, a short vowel has one mora and a long vowel has two morae. A geminate or prenasalised consonant has one mora. A consonant + semivowel (e.g. {{lang|lg|gw}} or {{lang|lg|ly}}) also has one mora. A vowel followed by a prenasalised consonant has two morae ''including'' the one belonging to the prenasalised consonant. The initial vowel of words like {{lang|lg|ekitabo}} 'book' is considered to have one mora, even though such vowels are often pronounced long. No syllable can have more than two morae.

Falling tones can be heard in syllables which have two morae, e.g. those with a long vowel ({{lang|lg|okukóoká}} 'to cry'),<ref name=DP125>Dutcher & Paster (2008), p.125.</ref> those with a short vowel followed by a geminate consonant ({{lang|lg|okubôbbá}} 'to throb'),<ref name=DP125 /> those with a vowel followed by a prenasalised consonant ({{lang|lg|Abagândá}} 'Baganda people'), and those following a consonant plus semivowel ({{lang|lg|okulwâlá}} {{IPA|[okulwáalá]}} 'to fall sick').<ref name=DP125 /> They can also be heard on final vowels, e.g. {{lang|lg|ensî}} 'country'.

Words in Luganda commonly belong to one of three patterns (other patterns are less common): (a) without lexical tone, e.g. {{lang|lg|ekitabo}} 'book'; (b) with one high lexical tone, e.g. {{lang|lg|ekib'''ú'''ga}} 'city'; (c) with two high lexical tones, e.g. {{lang|lg|K'''á'''mpal'''á'''}} which link together to make HHH, i.e. {{IPA|[Kámpálá]}} or {{lang|lg|[Kámpálâ]}}. At the end of a sentence, a final lexical tone becomes a falling tone, i.e. [Kámpálâ], but in other contexts, e.g. when the word is used as the subject of a sentence, it remains high: {{lang|lg|Kámpálá kibúga}} 'Kampala is a city'.<ref>Luganda Basic Course, p.105</ref>

Although words like {{lang|lg|ekitabo}} are theoretically toneless, they are generally subject to a tone-raising rule whereby all but the first mora automatically acquire a high tone. Thus {{lang|lg|ekitabo}} 'book' is usually pronounced {{IPA|[e:kítábó]}} and {{lang|lg|ssomero}} 'school' is pronounced {{IPA|[ssóméró]}} (where the long consonant {{IPA|/ss/}} counts as the first mora).<ref>Luganda Pretraining Program, p.82.</ref> These tones automatically added to toneless words are called 'phrasal tones'. The tone-raising rule also applies to the toneless syllables at the end of words like {{lang|lg|eddw'''â'''liro}} {{IPA|[eddwáalíró]}} 'hospital' and {{lang|lg|t'''ú'''genda}} {{IPA|[túgeendá]}} 'we are going', provided that there is at least one low-toned mora after the lexical tone. When this happens, the high tones which follow the low tone are slightly lower than the one which precedes it.

However, there are certain contexts, such as when a toneless word is used as the subject of a sentence or before a numeral, when this tone-raising rule does not apply: {{lang|lg|Masindi kib'''ú'''ga}} 'Masindi is a city'; {{lang|lg|ebitabo kk'''ú'''mi}} 'ten books'.<ref>Luganda Basic Course, pp.xviii, xix.</ref>

In a sentence, the lexical tones (that is, the high tones of individual words) tend to fall gradually in a series of steps from high to low. For example, in the sentence {{lang|lg|kye kib'''ú'''ga ekik'''ú'''lu mu Ug'''áń'''da}} 'it is the chief city in Uganda', the lexical high tones of the syllables {{lang|lg|bú}}, {{lang|lg|kú}} and {{lang|lg|gá}} stand out and gradually descend in pitch, the toneless syllables in between being lower.<ref>Luganda Basic Course, p.105.</ref> This phenomenon is called '[[downdrift]]'.

However, there are certain types of phrase, notably those in the form 'noun + of + noun', or 'verb + location', where downdrift does not occur, and instead all the syllables in between the two lexical high tones link together into a 'tonal plateau', in which all the vowels have tones of equal height, for example {{lang|lg|mu mas<u>'''é'''réngétá g'''á''' Úg'''áń'''</u>da}} 'in the south of Uganda' or {{lang|lg|<u>k'''í'''rí mú Úg'''áń'''</u>da}} 'it is in Uganda'.<ref>Luganda Basic Course, pp.26, 31.</ref> Plateauing also occurs within a word, as in {{lang|lg|<u>K'''á'''mpál'''â'''</u>}} (see above).

A plateau cannot be formed between a lexical tone and a following phrasal tone; so in the sentence {{lang|lg|k'''í'''ri mu Bunyóró}} 'it is in Bunyoro' there is downdrift, since the tones of {{lang|lg|Bunyóró}} are phrasal. But a phrasal tone can and frequently does form a plateau with a following lexical tone or phrasal tone. So in {{lang|lg|a<u>bántú mú Úg'''áń'''</u>da}} 'people in Uganda', there is a plateau from the phrasal tone of {{lang|lg|abántú}} to the lexical tone of {{lang|lg|Ug'''áń'''da}}, and in {{lang|lg|t'''ú'''gen<u>dá mú lúgúú</u>dó}} 'we are going into the street', there is a plateau from the phrasal tone of {{lang|lg|t'''ú'''gendá}} to the phrasal tone of {{lang|lg|lugúúdó}}.<ref>Luganda Basic Course, p.xiii.</ref> Again there are certain exceptions; for example, there is no plateau before the words {{lang|lg|ono}} 'this' or {{lang|lg|bonn'''â'''}} 'all': {{lang|lg|muntú onó}} 'this person', {{lang|lg|abántú bonn'''â'''}} 'all the people'.<ref>Luganda Basic Course, p.xx.</ref>

Prefixes sometimes change the tones in a word. For example, {{lang|lg|Bag'''áń'''da}} {{IPA|[baɡá:nda]}} 'they are Baganda' has LHHL, but adding the initial vowel {{lang|lg|a-}} {{IPA|[a]}} gives {{lang|lg|Abag'''â'''ndá}} {{IPA|[abaɡâ:ndá]}} 'Baganda people' with a falling tone on ''ga'' and phrasal tone on the final syllable.

Different verb tenses have different tonal patterns. The tones of verbs are made more complicated by the fact that some verbs have a high lexical tone on the first syllable of the root, while others do not, and also by the fact that the sequence HH generally becomes HL by a rule called [[Meeussen's rule]]. Thus {{lang|lg|asóma}} means 'he reads', but when the toneless prefix {{lang|lg|a-}} 'he/she' is replaced by the high-toned prefix {{lang|lg|bá-}} 'they', instead of {{lang|lg|básóma}} it becomes {{lang|lg|básomá}} 'they read'.<ref>Luganda Pretraining Program, p.94.</ref> The tones of verbs in relative clauses and in negative sentences differ from those in ordinary positive sentences and the addition of an object-marker such as {{lang|lg|mu}} 'him' adds further complications.

In addition to lexical tones, phrasal tones, and the tonal patterns of tenses, there are also intonational tones in Luganda, for example, tones of questions. One rather unexpected phenomenon for English speakers is that if a yes–no question ends in a toneless word, instead of a rise, there is a sharp drop in pitch, e.g. {{lang|lg|lúnó lúgúúdò?}} 'is this a road?'.<ref>Luganda Pretraining Program, p.99.</ref>

=== Phonotactics ===
[[Syllable]]s can take any of the following forms:
* V (only as the first syllable of a word)
* CV
* GV
* NCV
* CSV
* GSV
* NCSV
where V = [[vowel]], C = single [[consonant]] (including nasals and semivowels but excluding geminates), G = [[geminate consonant]], N = [[nasal stop]], S = [[semivowel]]

These forms are subject to certain [[phonotactics|phonotactic]] restrictions:
* Two vowels may not appear adjacent to one another. When [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] or [[grammar|grammatical]] rules cause two vowels to meet, the first vowel is [[elision|elided]] or reduced to a [[semivowel]] and the second is [[long vowel|lengthened]] if possible.
* A vowel following a consonant–semivowel combination (except {{IPA|[ɡːw]}}) is always long, except at the end of a word. After {{IPA|[ɡːw]}} a vowel can be either long or short. At the end of a word, all vowels are pronounced short.<ref>Luganda Basic Course, p.xi.</ref>
* A vowel followed by a nasal–plosive combination is always long.
* A vowel followed by a geminate is always short. This rule takes precedence over all the above rules.
* The [[velar consonant|velar]] [[plosive consonant|plosives]] {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} may not appear before the vowel {{IPA|[i]}} or the semivowel {{IPA|[j]}}. In this position they become the corresponding [[postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]] [[affricate consonant|affricates]] {{IPA|[tʃ]}} and {{IPA|[dʒ]}} respectively.
* The consonants {{IPA|/j/}}, {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/l~r/}} cannot be [[gemination|geminated]] or [[prenasalised stop|prenasalised]].
* A consonant cannot be both geminated and prenasalised.

The net effect of this is that all Luganda words follow the general pattern of alternating [[consonant cluster]]s and [[vowel]]s, beginning with either but always ending in a vowel:
* (V)XVXV...XV
where V = [[vowel]], X = [[consonant cluster]], (V) = optional vowel

This is reflected in the [[syllabification]] rule that in writing, words are always hyphenated after a vowel (when breaking a word over two lines). For example, {{lang|lg|Emmotoka yange ezze}} 'My car has arrived' would be split into syllables as {{lang|lg|E‧mmo‧to‧ka ya‧nge e‧zze}}.

=== Variant pronunciations ===
The [[palatal consonant|palatal]] [[plosive consonant|plosives]] {{IPA|/c/}} and {{IPA|/ɟ/}} may be realised with some [[affricate consonant|affrication]] — either as {{IPA|[cç]}} and {{IPA|[ɟʝ]}} or as [[postalveolar consonant|postalveolars]] {{IPA|/tʃ/}} and {{IPA|/dʒ/}} respectively.

In speech, word-final [[vowel]]s are often [[elision|elided]] in these conditioning environments:
* Word-final {{IPA|/u/}} can be silent after {{IPA|/f/}}, {{IPA|/fː/}}, {{IPA|/v/}} or {{IPA|/vː/}}
* Word-final {{IPA|/i/}} can be silent after {{IPA|/c/}}, {{IPA|/cː/}}, {{IPA|/ɟ/}} or {{IPA|/ɟː/}}

For example, {{lang|lg|ekiddugavu}} {{IPA|/ecídːuɡavu/}} 'black' may be pronounced {{IPA|[ecídːuɡavʷu]}} or {{IPA|[ecídːuɡavʷ]}}. Similarly {{lang|lg|lwaki}} {{IPA|/lwáːci/}} 'why' may be pronounced {{IPA|[lwáːci]}}, {{IPA|[lwáːc]}} or {{IPA|[lwáːtʃ]}}.

Long vowels before [[prenasalised consonant|prenasalised]] [[fricative]]s (that is, before {{IPA|/nf/}}, {{IPA|/nv/}}, {{IPA|/ns/}} or {{IPA|/nz/}}) may be [[nasal vowel|nasalised]], and the nasal is then often elided. Additionally, when not elided (for example phrase-initially), the {{IPA|/n/}} usually becomes a [[labiodental consonant|labiodental]] in {{IPA|/nf/}}, {{IPA|/nv/}}. For example:
* {{lang|lg|nfa}} {{IPA|/nfa/}} 'I'm dying' is pronounced {{IPA|[ɱfʷa]}}
* {{lang|lg|musanvu}} {{IPA|/musáːnvu/}} 'seven' may be pronounced {{IPA|[musáːɱvʷu]}}, {{IPA|[musãːɱvʷu]}}, {{IPA|[musãːvʷu]}} or {{IPA|[musãːɱvʷ]}}
* {{lang|lg|tonsaba}} {{IPA|/toːnsába/}} 'don't ask me' may be pronounced {{IPA|[toːnsába]}}, {{IPA|[tõːsába]}} or {{IPA|[tõːnsába]}}

The [[liquid consonant|liquid]] {{IPA|/l~r/}} has two [[allophones]] {{IPA|[l]}} and {{IPA|[r]}}, conditioned by the preceding vowel. It is usually realised as a [[tap consonant|tap]] or [[flap consonant|flap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}} after a [[front vowel|front]] [[unrounded vowel]] (''i.e.'' after {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/eː/}}, {{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/iː/}}), and as a [[lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[l]}} elsewhere. However, there is considerable variation in this, and using one allophone instead of the other causes no ambiguity. So {{lang|lg|lwaki}} {{IPA|/lwáːci/}} 'why' may also be pronounced {{IPA|[rwáːci]}}, {{IPA|[ɾwáːci]}}, {{IPA|[ɹwáːtʃi]}} ''etc''.

=== Alternative analysis ===
Treating the [[geminate consonant|geminate]] and [[prenasalised consonant|prenasalised]] consonants as separate [[phoneme]]s yields the expanded consonant set below:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! scope="col" | [[bilabial consonant|Labial]]
! scope="col" | [[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! scope="col" | [[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! scope="col" | [[velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! scope="row" | Simple [[Plosive consonant|plosive]]
|{{IPA link|p}} {{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|t}} {{IPA link|d}}
|{{IPA link|c}} {{IPA link|ɟ}}
|{{IPA link|k}} {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Geminate consonant|Geminate]] plosive
|{{IPA link|pː}} {{IPA link|bː}}
|{{IPA link|tː}} {{IPA link|dː}}
|{{IPA link|cː}} {{IPA link|ɟː}}
|{{IPA link|kː}} {{IPA link|ɡː}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Prenasalised consonant|Prenasalised]] plosive
|{{IPA link|ᵐp}} {{IPA link|ᵐb}}
|{{IPA link|ⁿt}} {{IPA link|ⁿd}}
|{{IPA link|ᶮc}} {{IPA link|ᶮɟ}}
|{{IPA link|ᵑk}} {{IPA link|ᵑɡ}}
|-
! scope="row" | Simple [[Fricative consonant|fricative]]
|{{IPA link|f}} {{IPA link|v}}
|{{IPA link|s}} {{IPA link|z}}
|
|
|-
! scope="row" | Geminate fricative
|{{IPA link|fː}} {{IPA link|vː}}
|{{IPA link|sː}} {{IPA link|zː}}
|
|
|-
! scope="row" | Prenasalised fricative
|{{IPA link|ᶬf}} {{IPA link|ᶬv}}
|{{IPA link|ⁿs}} {{IPA link|ⁿz}}
|
|
|-
! scope="row" | Simple [[Nasal stop|nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}}
|{{IPA link|ɲ}}
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|-
! scope="row" | Geminate nasal
|{{IPA link|mː}}
|{{IPA link|nː}}
|{{IPA link|ɲː}}
|{{IPA link|ŋː}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|j}}
|{{IPA link|w}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|
|{{IPA link|l}}
|
|
|}

This simplifies the phonotactic rules so that all syllables are of one of three forms:
* V (only as the first syllable of a word)
* CV
* CSV
where V = [[vowel]], C = [[consonant]] (including geminate and prenasalised consonants), N = [[nasal stop]], S = [[semivowel]] (''i.e.'' either {{IPA|/j/}} or {{IPA|/w/}}).

[[Vowel length]] is then only distinctive before simple consonants (''i.e.'' simple plosives, simple fricatives, simple nasals, approximants and liquids)—not before geminate or nasalised consonants or at the end of a word.