Editing Latin phonology and orthography (section)

==Letters and phonemes==
In Classical spelling, individual letters mainly corresponded to individual phonemes ([[alphabetic principle]]). Exceptions include:
# The letters {{angbr|a}}, {{angbr|e}}, {{angbr|i}}, {{angbr|o}}, {{angbr|u}} and {{angbr|y}}, each of which could represent either a short vowel or a long one. The long vowels were sometimes marked with [[apex (diacritic)|apices]], as in {{angbr|á}}, {{angbr|é}}, {{angbr|ó}}, {{angbr|ú}} and {{angbr|ý}}, while long {{IPA|/iː/}} could be marked with [[long I]] {{angbr|ꟾ}}.<ref name="Sihler alphabet">{{Harvnb|Sihler|1995|pp=20–22|loc=§25: the Italic alphabets}}</ref> Since the 19th century, long vowels have been marked with [[Macron (diacritic)|macrons]], as in {{angbr|ā}}, {{angbr|ē}}, {{angbr|ī}}, {{angbr|ō}}, {{angbr|ū}} and {{angbr|ȳ}}; sometimes, [[breve]]s may also be used to indicate short vowels, as in {{angbr|ă}}, {{angbr|ĕ}}, {{angbr|ĭ}}, {{angbr|ŏ}}, {{angbr|ŭ}}, and {{angbr|y̆}}.
# The letters {{angbr|i}} and {{angbr|u}}, which could either indicate vowels (as mentioned) or the consonants {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}, respectively. In modern times, the letters {{angbr|j}} and {{angbr|v}} began to be used as distinct spellings for these consonants (now often pronounced very differently).
# Digraphs such as {{angbr|ae}}, {{angbr|au}} and {{angbr|oe}}, which represented the diphthongs {{IPA|/ae̯/}}, {{IPA|/au̯/}} and {{IPA|/oe̯/}}. In a few words, these could also stand for sequences of two adjacent vowels, which is sometimes marked by the use of a [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]] in modern transcriptions, as in {{angbr|aë}}, {{angbr|aü}} and {{angbr|oë}}.
# The digraphs {{angbr|ph}}, {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ch}}, standing for the aspirated consonants {{IPA|/pʰ/}}, {{IPA|/tʰ/}} and {{IPA|/kʰ/}}.

===Consonants===
Below are the distinctive (i.e. [[Phoneme|phonemic]]) consonants that are assumed for Classical Latin. Those placed in brackets have a debated phonemic status, and those preceded by a dagger (†) are found mainly or only in Greek loanwords.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! {{small|plain}}
! {{small|[[Labialization|labialized]]}}
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
! {{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
| ({{IPA link|ɡʷ}})
|
|-
! {{small|[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
|
| {{IPA link|k}} 
| ({{IPA link|kʷ}})
|
|-
! {{small|[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]}}
| <sup>†</sup>{{IPA link|pʰ}}
| <sup>†</sup>{{IPA link|tʰ}}
|
| <sup>†</sup>{{IPA link|kʰ}}
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! {{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
|
|<sup>†</sup>{{IPA link|z}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! {{small|[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|s}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
| {{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
| {{IPA link|j}}
|
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
|}

====Phonetics====
* Latin may have had the labialized velar stops {{IPA|/kʷ/}} and {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}} as opposed to the stop + semivowel sequences {{IPA|/kw/}} and {{IPA|/ɡw/}} (as in the English '''''qu'''ick'' or ''pen'''gu'''in''). The argument for {{IPA|/kʷ/}} is stronger than that for {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}}.{{efn|{{Harvnb|Allen|1978}} (p. 17) judges the evidence to favour {{IPA|/kʷ/}} and {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}}, while {{Harvnb|Cser|2020}} (§2.2.2) comes to the opposite conclusion. The relevant facts, per the latter, are as follows:<br /><br />{{angbr|qu}} enjoyed a wide lexical distribution, while {{angbr|gu(V)}} was limited to a dozen or so words, where it was always preceded by {{IPA|/n/}}. The grammarian [[Velius Longus]] indicated that the {{angbr|u}} of {{angbr|qu}} was in some way different from {{IPA|/w/}} in general. No geminate *{{angbr|qqu}} is attested, whereas all (other) Latin stops are also found as geminates. Sequences of obstruent + glide are rare in Classical Latin. In poetry, whenever sequences of stop + glide occur in medial position, the scansion reveals that can be split across syllables, but this is never the case for {{angbr|qu}}. Neither {{angbr|qu}} nor {{angbr|gu}} are ever followed by a consonant, unlike any (other) Latin stop, nor can they occur word-finally. The voicing contrast between {{angbr|nqu}} and {{angbr|ngu}} is not found in any (other) sequence of three consonants. Assimilation of the prefix {{lang|la|ad-}} to a following {{angbr|qu}} is relatively rare, which is also the case when {{lang|la|ad-}} is followed by a consonant cluster. The Proto-Indo-European predecessor of Latin {{angbr|qu}} is, in many cases, reconstructed as a single consonant *{{IPA|/kʷ/}}, notably distinct from sequences of *{{IPA|/kw/}}. Occasionally Latin {{IPA|/w/}} scans as a vowel in poetry, when preceded by {{IPA|/s/}} or {{IPA|/l/}}, but this is never the case for the {{angbr|u}} of {{angbr|qu}}.}}
* The former could occur between vowels, where it always counted as a single consonant in Classical poetry, whereas the latter only occurred after {{IPA|/n/}}, where it is impossible to tell whether it counted as one consonant or two.<ref name="Allen gm and gw">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=25}}</ref> The labial element, whether {{IPA|[ʷ]}} or {{IPA|[w]}}, appears to have been palatalised before a front vowel, resulting in {{IPA|[ᶣ]}} or {{IPA|[ɥ]}} (for instance {{lang|la|quī}} would have sounded something like {{audio|La-cls-qui.ogg|listen}}). This palatalisation did not affect the independent consonant {{IPA|/w/}} before front vowels.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=17}}</ref>
*{{IPA|/kʷ/}} and {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}} before {{IPA|/u/}} were not distinct from {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, which were allophonically labialized to {{IPA|[kʷ]}} and {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} by a following {{IPA|/u/}} such that writing a double {{angbr|uu}} was unnecessary. This is suggested by the fact that {{lang|la|equus}} and {{lang|la|unguunt}} (from Old Latin {{lang|la|equos}} and {{lang|la|unguont}}) are also found spelt as {{lang|la|ecus}} and {{lang|la|ungunt}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=19, 20}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} were less aspirated than the corresponding English consonants, as implied by their usually being transliterated into Ancient Greek as {{angbr|{{lang|grc|π}}}}, {{angbr|{{lang|grc|τ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|κ}}}}, and their pronunciation in most Romance languages. In many cases, however, it was not the Latin {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/k/}}, but rather {{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, that were used to render Greek word-initial {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} in borrowings (as in {{lang|grc|πύξος}}, {{lang|grc|κυβερνῶ}} > {{lang|la|buxus}}, {{lang|la|guberno}}), especially borrowings of a non-learned character. This might suggest that the Latin {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} had some degree of aspiration, making {{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} more suitable to approximate the Greek sounds.<ref name="tenues">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=12–13}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/pʰ/}}, {{IPA|/tʰ/}} and {{IPA|/kʰ/}} were pronounced with notable aspiration, like the initial consonants of the English '''''p'''ot'', '''''t'''op'', and '''''c'''ot'' respectively. They are attested beginning c. 150 BC, in the spellings {{angbr|ph}}, {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ch}}, at first only used to render the Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|φ}}}}, {{angbr|{{lang|grc|θ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|χ}}}} in loanwords. (Previously these had been rendered in Latin as {{angbr|p}}, {{angbr|t}} and {{angbr|c}}.) From c. 100 BC onward {{angbr|ph}}, {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ch}} spread to a number of native Latin words as well, such as {{lang|la|pulcher}} and {{lang|la|lachrima}}. When this occurred it was nearly always in the vicinity of the consonant {{IPA|/r/}} or {{IPA|/l/}}, and the implication is that Latin {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} had become aspirated in that context.<ref name="aspirate1">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=26, 27}}</ref><ref name="aspirate2">{{Harvnb|Clackson|Horrocks|2007|p=190}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/z/}} was found as a rendering of the Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ζ}}}} in borrowings starting around the first century BC. (In earlier borrowings, the Greek sound had been rendered in Latin as {{IPA|/ss/}}.) In initial position this appears to have been pronounced {{IPA|[z]}}, and between vowels it appears to have been [[gemination|doubled]] to {{IPA|[zz]}} (counted as two consonants in poetry).<ref>{{Harvnb|Levy|1989|p=150}}</ref><ref name="Allen Z">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=46}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/s/}} was unvoiced in all positions in Classical Latin. Previously however Old Latin {{IPA|/s/}} appears to have voiced to {{IPA|[z]}} between vowels, ultimately [[Rhotacism|turning to]] {{IPA|/r/}}. Cicero reports the family-name {{lang|la|Papisius}} being changed to {{lang|la|Papirius}} in the fourth century BC, which may give some idea of the chronology. Afterward new instances of {{IPA|/s/}} developed between vowels from sound-changes like the degemination of {{IPA|/ss/}} after long vowels and diphthongs (as in {{lang|la|caussa}} > {{lang|la|causa}}), which [[Quintilian]] reports to have happened a little after the time of [[Cicero]] and [[Virgil]].<ref name="Allen s">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=35–37}}</ref>
*In Old Latin, final {{IPA|/s/}} after a short vowel was often lost, probably after first [[Debuccalization|debuccalizing]] to {{IPA|[h]}}, as in the inscriptional form {{lang|la|Cornelio}} for {{lang|la|Cornelios}} (Classical {{lang|la|Cornelius}}). Often in the poetry of [[Plautus]], [[Ennius]], and [[Lucretius]], final {{IPA|/s/}} did not count as a consonant when followed by a word beginning with a consonant. By the Classical period this practice was described as characteristic of non-urban speech by Cicero.<ref name="Allen s" />
* {{IPA|/f/}} was [[labiodental]] in Classical Latin but may have been a [[bilabial]] {{IPA|/ɸ/}} in Old Latin,<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=34, 35}}</ref> or perhaps {{IPA|[ɸ]}} in free variation with {{IPA|[f]}}. Lloyd, Sturtevant, and Kent make this argument based on misspellings in early inscriptions, the fact that many instances of Latin {{IPA|/f/}} descend from [[Proto-Indo-European]] *{{PIE|/bʰ/}}, and the outcomes of the sound in Romance (particularly in Spain).<ref>{{Harvnb|Lloyd|1987|p=80}}</ref>
* In most cases {{IPA|/m/}} was pronounced as a bilabial nasal. At the end of a word, however, it was generally lost beginning in Old Latin (except when another nasal or a plosive followed it), leaving [[compensatory lengthening]] and [[nasal vowel|nasalization]] on the preceding vowel<ref name="Lloyd 81" /> (such that {{lang|la|decem}} may have sounded something like {{audio|La-cls-decem.ogg|listen}}, i.e. {{IPA|[ˈdɛkẽː]}}). In Old Latin inscriptions, final {{angbr|m}} is often omitted, as in {{angbr|viro}} for {{lang|la|virom}} (Classical {{lang|la|virum}}). It was frequently elided before a following vowel in poetry and lost without a trace (apart from perhaps lengthening) in the Romance languages,<ref name="Allen -Vm">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=30, 31}}</ref> except in a number of monosyllabic words, where it often survives as {{IPA|/n/}} or a further development thereof.
* {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/m/}} [[Phoneme#Neutralization and archiphonemes|merged]] via assimilation before a following consonant, with the following consonant determining the resulting pronunciation: bilabial {{IPA|[m]}} before a bilabial consonant (e.g. {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/b/}}), coronal {{IPA|[n]}} before a coronal consonant (e.g. {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}}) and velar {{IPA|[ŋ]}} before a velar consonant (e.g. {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/kʷ/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}). This occurred both within words (e.g. {{lang|la|quī'''nq'''ue}} may have sounded something like {{audio|La-cls-quinque.ogg|listen}}) and across word-boundaries (for instance {{lang|la|i'''n''' causā}} with {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, or {{lang|la|i'''m''' pace}}).<ref name="Allen n">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=27–30}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/ɡ/}} assimilated to a [[velar nasal]] {{IPA|[ŋ]}} before {{IPA|/n/}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=23–25}}</ref> Allen and [[James B. Greenough|Greenough]] say that a vowel before {{IPA|[ŋn]}} is always long,<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|loc=§10d}}</ref> but W. Sidney Allen says that is based on an [[interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolation]] in [[Priscian]], and the vowel was actually long or short depending on the root, as for example {{lang|la|rēgnum}} from the root of {{lang|la|rēx}} but {{lang|la|magnus}} from the root of {{lang|la|magis}}.<ref name="Vgn">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=71–73}}</ref> {{IPA|/ɡ/}} probably did not assimilate to {{IPA|[ŋ]}} before {{IPA|/m/}}. The cluster {{IPA|/ɡm/}} arose by [[syncope (phonetics)|syncope]], as for example {{lang|la|tegmen}} from {{lang|la|tegimen}}. Original {{IPA|/ɡm/}} developed into {{IPA|/mm/}} in {{lang|la|flamma}}, from the root of {{lang|la|flagrō}}.<ref name="Allen gm and gw" /> At the start of a word, original {{IPA|/ɡn/}} was reduced to {{IPA|[n]}}, and this change was reflected in the orthography of later texts, as in {{lang|la|gnātus}}, {{lang|la|gnōscō}} > {{lang|la|nātus}}, {{lang|la|nōscō}}.
* In Classical Latin, the [[rhotic consonant|rhotic]] {{IPA|/r/}} was most likely an [[alveolar trill]] {{IPA|[r]}}, at least in some positions and when doubled. [[Gaius Lucilius]] likened it to the sound of a dog, and later writers described it as being produced by vibration. In Old Latin, intervocalic {{IPA|/z/}} developed into {{IPA|/r/}} ([[Rhotacism (sound change)|rhotacism]]), suggesting an approximant like the English {{IPAblink|ɹ}}, and {{IPA|/d/}} was sometimes written as {{angbr|r}}, possibly suggesting a tap {{IPAblink|ɾ}} (like the single {{IPA|/ɾ/}} in Spanish).<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=33}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/l/}} was strongly [[Velarization|velarized]] in [[syllable coda]] and probably somewhat [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]] when [[Gemination|geminated]] or followed by {{IPA|/i(ː)/}}. In [[Intervocalic consonant|intervocalic]] position, it appears to have been velarized before all vowels except {{IPA|/i(ː)/}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cser|2020|loc=§4.9}}. In footnote 206, he adds: "The evidence has been thoroughly assessed in the diachronic literature; see Sen (2012: 472–3; 2015: 15 sqq.), Meiser (1998: 68–9), Leumann (1977: 85–7)."</ref>
* {{IPA|/j/}} generally appeared only at the beginning of words, before a vowel, as in {{lang|la|iaceō}}, except in compound words such as {{lang|la|adiaceō}} (pronounced something like {{audio|La-cls-iaceo, adiaceo.ogg|listen}}). Between vowels, it was generally as a geminate {{IPA|/jj/}}, as in {{lang|la|cuius}} (pronounced something like {{audio|La-cls-cuius.ogg|listen}}) except in compound words such as {{lang|la|trāiectus}}. This {{IPA|/jj/}} is sometimes marked in modern editions by a [[circumflex]] on the preceding vowel, e.g. {{lang|la|cûius}}, {{lang|la|êius}}, {{lang|la|mâior}}, etc. {{IPA|/j/}} could also have varied with {{IPA|/i/}} in the same [[morpheme]], as in {{lang|la|iam}} {{IPA|/jam/}} and {{lang|la|etiam}} {{IPA|/ˈe.ti.am/}}, and in poetry one could be replaced with the other for [[metre (poetry)|metrical]] purpose.<ref name="Allen j">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=37–40}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/w/}} was pronounced as an approximant until the first century AD, when {{IPA|/w/}} and intervocalic {{IPA|/b/}} began to develop into fricatives. In poetry, {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} could be replaced with each other, as in {{IPA|/ˈsilua/}}~{{IPA|/ˈsilwa/}} or {{IPA|/ˈɡenua/}}~{{IPA|/ˈɡenwa/}}. Unlike {{IPA|/j/}} it remained a single consonant in most words, e.g. in {{lang|la|cavē}}, although it did represent a double {{IPA|/ww/}} in borrowings from Greek such as the name {{lang|la|Evander}}.<ref name="Allen v">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=40–42}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/h/}} was generally still pronounced in Classical Latin, at least by educated speakers, but in many cases it appears to have been lost early on between vowels, and sometimes in other contexts as well ({{lang|la|diribeō}} < *{{lang|la|dis-habeō}} being a particularly early example). Where intervocalic {{IPA|/h/}} survived, it was likely voiced<ref name="Allen h">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=43–45}}</ref> (that is, {{IPA|[ɦ]}}).

====Notes on spelling====
* Doubled consonant letters represented genuinely [[Gemination|doubled]] consonants, as in {{angbr|cc}} for {{IPA|/kk/}}. In [[Old Latin]], geminate consonants were written as if they were single until the middle of the second century BC, when orthographic doubling began to appear.{{efn|{{lang|la|epistula ad tiburtes}}, a letter by [[praetor]] Lucius Cornelius from 159 BC, contains the first examples of doubled consonants in the words {{lang|la|potuisse}}, {{lang|la|esse}}, and {{lang|la|peccatum}} {{Harv|Clackson|Horrocks|2007|pp=147, 149}}.}} Grammarians mention the marking of double consonants with the [[sicilicus]], a diacritic in the shape of a sickle. It appears in a few inscriptions of the [[Augustan literature (ancient Rome)|Augustan era]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=11}}</ref>
* {{angbr|c}} and {{angbr|k}} both represented {{IPA|/k/}}, whereas {{angbr|qu}} represented {{IPA|/kʷ/}}. {{angbr|c}} and {{angbr|q}} distinguish minimal pairs such as {{lang|la|cui}} {{IPA|/kui̯/}} and {{lang|la|quī}} {{IPA|/kʷiː/}}.<ref name="ui">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=42}}</ref> In Classical Latin {{angbr|k}} appeared in only a few words like {{lang|la|kalendae}}, {{lang|la|Karthagō}} - which could also be spelt {{lang|la|calendae}}, {{lang|la|Carthagō}}.<ref name="Allen C">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=15, 16}}</ref>
* {{angbr|x}} represented {{IPA|/ks/}}. It was borrowed from the [[Archaic Greek alphabets#Aspirate and consonant cluster symbols|Western Greek alphabet]], where [[chi (letter)|chi]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|χ}}}} stood for {{IPA|/ks/}} as well. This was unlike the usage of chi in the [[Greek alphabet|Ionic alphabet]], where it stood for {{IPA|/kʰ/}}, with {{IPA|/ks/}} instead represented by the letter [[xi (letter)|xi]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ξ}}}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=45}}</ref>
* {{angbr|ks}} {{angbr|cs}} and {{angbr|xs}} were also used to spell {{IPA|/ks/}} in Old Latin, but by the Classical period, {{angbr|xs}} was reserved for words containing the prefix {{lang|la|ex-}} combined with a base starting with {{angbr|s}} (e.g. {{lang|la|exsanguis}}).<ref name="Zair 2023">{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Zair|title=Orthographic Traditions and the Sub-elite in the Roman Empire|isbn=9781009327664|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2023|page=170}}</ref>
* In Old Latin inscriptions, {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} were not distinguished. They were both represented by {{angbr|c}} before {{angbr|e}} and {{angbr|i}}, by {{angbr|q}} before {{angbr|o}} and {{angbr|u}}, and by {{angbr|k}} before consonants or {{angbr|a}}.<ref name="Sihler alphabet" /> The letterform {{angbr|c}} derives from the Greek [[gamma]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|Γ}}}}, which represented {{IPA|/ɡ/}}. Its use for {{IPA|/k/}} may come from [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]], which did not distinguish voiced plosives from voiceless ones. In Classical Latin, {{angbr|c}} represented {{IPA|/ɡ/}} only in the abbreviations {{lang|la|c}} and {{lang|la|cn}}, for {{lang|la|Gaius}} and {{lang|la|Gnaeus}} respectively.<ref name="Allen C" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|loc=§1a}}</ref>
*{{angbr|g}} was created in the third century BC to distinguish {{IPA|/ɡ/}} from {{IPA|/k/}}.<ref name="OL letters">{{Harvnb|Clackson|Horrocks|2007|p=96}}</ref> Its letterform derived from {{angbr|c}} with the addition of a [[diacritic]] or [[typeface anatomy|stroke]]. [[Plutarch]] attributes this innovation to [[Spurius Carvilius Ruga]] around 230 BC,<ref name="Sihler alphabet" /> but it may have originated with [[Appius Claudius Caecus]]<!-- Allen simply says Appius Claudius in the 4th century BC; Caecus is the only one at that time listed by Wikipedia. Another source would be good. --> in the fourth century BC.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=15}}</ref>
* The cluster {{angbr|gn}} probably represented the consonant cluster {{IPA|[ŋn]}}, at least between vowels, as in {{lang|la|agnus}} {{IPA|[ˈäŋ.nʊs]}} {{audio|La-cls-agnus2.ogg|listen}}.<ref name="Lloyd 81">{{Harvnb|Lloyd|1987|p=81}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=23}}</ref> Vowels before this cluster were sometimes long and sometimes short.<ref name="Vgn" />
* The digraphs {{angbr|ph}}, {{angbr|th}}, and {{angbr|ch}} represented the aspirated plosives {{IPA|/pʰ/}}, {{IPA|/tʰ/}} and {{IPA|/kʰ/}}. They began to be used in writing around 150&nbsp;BC,<ref name="OL letters" /> primarily as a transcription of Greek [[phi]] {{lang|grc|Φ}}, [[theta]] {{lang|grc|Θ}}, and [[Chi (letter)|chi]] {{lang|grc|Χ}}, as in {{lang|la|Philippus}}, {{lang|la|cithara}}, and {{lang|la|achāia}}. Some native words were later also written with these digraphs, such as {{lang|la|pulcher}}, {{lang|la|lachrima}}, {{lang|la|gracchus}}, {{lang|la|triumphus}}, probably representing aspirated allophones of the voiceless plosives near {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/l/}}. Aspirated plosives and the glottal fricative {{IPA|/h/}} were also used [[hypercorrection|hypercorrectively]], an affectation satirized in [[s:Translation:Catullus 84|Catullus 84]].<ref name="aspirate1" /><ref name="aspirate2" />
* In Old Latin, Koine Greek initial {{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/zz/}} between vowels were represented by {{angbr|s}} and {{angbr|ss}}, as in {{lang|la|sona}} from {{lang|grc|ζώνη}} and {{lang|la|massa}} from {{lang|grc|μᾶζα}}. Around the second and first centuries B.C., the Greek letter [[zeta]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|Ζ}}}} was adopted to represent {{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/zz/}}.<ref name="Allen Z" /> However, the [[Vulgar Latin]] spellings<!-- Sturtevant does not specify when these spellings were used, but they seem to be from Late or Vulgar, not Classical Latin, given the use of ae for e. --> {{angbr|z}} or {{angbr|zi}} for earlier {{angbr|di}} and {{angbr|d}} before {{angbr|e}}, and the spellings {{angbr|di}} and {{angbr|dz}} for earlier {{angbr|z}}, suggest the pronunciation {{IPA|/dz/}}, as for example {{lang|la|ziomedis}} for {{lang|la|diomedis}}, and {{lang|la|diaeta}} for {{lang|la|zeta}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sturtevant|1920|pp=115–116}}</ref>
* In ancient times {{angbr|V}} and {{angbr|I}} represented the [[approximant consonant|approximant]] consonants {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}, as well as the close vowels {{IPA|/u(ː)/}} and {{IPA|/i(ː)/}}.
* {{angbr|i}} representing the consonant {{IPA|/j/}} was usually not doubled in writing, so a single {{angbr|i}} represented double {{IPA|/jː/}} or {{IPA|/jj/}} and the sequences {{IPA|/ji/}} and {{IPA|/jːi/}}, as in {{lang|la|cuius}} for *{{lang|la|cuiius}} {{IPA|/ˈkuj.jus/}}, {{lang|la|conicit}} for *{{lang|la|coniicit}} {{IPA|/ˈkon.ji.kit/}}, and {{lang|la|reicit}} for *{{lang|la|reiiicit}} {{IPA|/ˈrej.ji.kit/}}. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of {{angbr|i}} could occur in some of the same environments: compare {{lang|la|māius}} {{IPA|/ˈmaj.jus/}} with {{lang|la|Gāius}} {{IPA|/ˈɡaː.i.us/}}, and {{lang|la|Iūlius}} {{IPA|/ˈjuː.li.us/}} with {{lang|la|Iūlus}} {{IPA|/iˈuː.lus/}}. The vowel before a doubled {{IPA|/jː/}} is sometimes marked with a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]], as in {{lang|la|cūius}}.<!-- Source for this use of macron needed; Allen and Greenough uses a circumflex. --> It indicates not that the vowel is long but that the first syllable is [[syllable weight|heavy]] from the double consonant.<ref name="Allen j" />
* {{angbr|V}} between vowels represented single {{IPA|/w/}} in native Latin words but double {{IPA|/ww/}} in Greek loanwords. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of {{angbr|V}} sometimes occurred in similar environments, as in {{lang|la|GENVA}} {{IPA|[ˈɡɛ.nu.ä]}} and {{lang|la|SILVA}} {{IPA|[ˈsɪl.wä]}}.<ref name="Allen v" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|loc=§6d, 11c}}</ref>

===Vowels===

====Monophthongs====
[[File:Latin vowel space.png|thumb|The Latin vowel-space per {{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=47}}]]
Classical Latin had ten native phonemic monophthongs: the five [[Vowel length|short]] vowels {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}, and their long counterparts {{IPA|/iː/}}, {{IPA|/eː/}}, {{IPA|/aː/}}, {{IPA|/oː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}}. Two additional monophthongs, {{IPA|/y/}} and {{IPA|/yː/}}, were sometimes used for {{angbr|y}} in [[loanword]]s from Greek by educated speakers, but most speakers would have approximated them with {{IPA|/i(ː)/}} or {{IPA|/u(ː)/}}.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|iː}}<br />([[Close front rounded vowel|y yː]])
|
| {{IPA link|u}} {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}} {{IPA link|eː}}
|
| {{IPA link|o}} {{IPA link|oː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|ä|a}} {{IPA link|ä|aː}}
|
|}

====Long and short vowels====
The short vowels {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} appear to have been pronounced with a relatively [[open vowel|open]] quality, which may be approximated as {{IPAblink|ɪ}} {{IPAblink|ɛ}} {{IPAblink|ɔ}} {{IPAblink|ʊ}}, and the corresponding long vowels with a relatively close quality, approximately {{IPAblink|iː}} {{IPAblink|eː}} {{IPAblink|oː}} {{IPAblink|uː}}.{{efn|There is, however, a fringe view that the short high vowels {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} were tense {{IPA|[i]}} and {{IPA|[u]}} and that the long mid vowels {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} were lax {{IPA|[ɛː]}} and {{IPA|[ɔː]}}, implying that none of the Latin short-long vowel pairs differed in quality {{Harv|Calabrese|2005}}.}} That the short {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} were, as this implies, similar in quality to the long {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} is suggested by attested misspellings such as:<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=47–49}}</ref>
* {{angbr|trebibos}} for {{lang|la|tribibus}}
* {{angbr|minsis}} for {{lang|la|mēnsis}}
* {{angbr|sob}} for {{lang|la|sub}}
* {{angbr|punere}} for {{lang|la|pōnere}}

{{IPA|/e/}} most likely had a more open allophone before {{IPA|/r/}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=51}}</ref>

{{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} were probably pronounced closer when they occurred before another vowel, with e.g. {{lang|la|mea}} written as {{angbr|mia}} in some inscriptions. Short {{IPA|/i/}} before another vowel is often written with the so-called [[long I]], as in {{angbr|dꟾes}} for {{lang|la|diēs}}, indicating that its quality was similar to that of long {{IPA|/iː/}}; it was almost never confused with {{angbr|e}} in this position.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=51, 52}}</ref>

====Adoption of Greek upsilon====
{{angbr|y}} was used in Greek loanwords with [[Upsilon (letter)|upsilon]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|Υ}}}}. This letter represented the [[close front rounded vowel]], both short and long: {{IPA|/y/}} and {{IPA|/yː/}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=52}}</ref> Latin did not have this sound as a native phoneme, and speakers tended to pronounce such loanwords with {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}} in Old Latin and {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/iː/}} in Classical and Late Latin if they were unable to produce {{IPA|/y/}} and {{IPA|/yː/}}.

===={{lang|la|Sonus medius}}====
An intermediate vowel sound (likely a close central vowel {{IPAblink|ɨ}} or possibly its rounded counterpart {{IPAblink|ʉ}}, or even {{IPAblink|ʏ}}), called {{lang|la|sonus medius}}, can be reconstructed for the classical period.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=56}}</ref> Such a vowel is found in {{lang|la|doc'''u'''mentum}}, {{lang|la|opt'''i'''mus}}, {{lang|la|lacr'''i'''ma}} (also spelled {{lang|la|doc'''i'''mentum}}, {{lang|la|opt'''u'''mus}}, {{lang|la|lacr'''u'''ma}}) and other words. It developed out of any historical short vowel in a non-initial open syllable by vowel reduction, probably first to {{IPAblink|ə}}, later fronted to {{IPAblink|ɪ}} or {{IPAblink|ɨ}}. In the vicinity of labial consonants, this sound was not as fronted and may have retained some rounding, thus being more similar if not identical to the unreduced short {{IPA|/u/}} {{IPAblink|ʊ}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=59}}</ref> The [[Claudian letter]] Ⱶ ⱶ was possibly invented to represent this sound, but is never actually found used this way in the epigraphic record (it usually served as a replacement for the [[upsilon]]).

====Vowel nasalization====
{{listen|header=Examples of nasalized vowels at ends of words and before -ns-, -nf- sequences|type=speech
|filename=La-cls-monstrum.ogg|title=monstrum
|filename3=La-cls-mensis.ogg|title3=mensis
|filename4=La-cls-infans, infantem.ogg|title4=infans, infantem}}
Vowels followed by a nasal consonant were allophonically realised as long [[nasal vowel]]s in two environments:<ref>{{Harvnb|Clackson|2008|p=77}}</ref>
* Before word-final {{angbr|m}}:<ref name="Allen -Vm" />
** {{lang|la|monstrum}} {{IPA|/ˈmon.strum/}} > {{IPA|[ˈmõː.strʊ̃]}}
** {{lang|la|dentem}} {{IPA|/ˈden.tem/}} > {{IPA|[ˈdɛn.tɛ̃]}}
* Before nasal consonants followed by a fricative:<ref name="Allen n" />
** {{lang|la|censor}} {{IPA|/ˈken.sor/}} > {{IPA|[ˈkẽː.sɔr]}} (in early inscriptions, often written as {{lang|la|cesor}})
** {{lang|la|consul}} {{IPA|/ˈkon.sul/}} > {{IPA|[ˈkõː.sʊɫ̪]}} (often written as {{lang|la|cosol}} and abbreviated as {{lang|la|cos}})
** {{lang|la|inferōs}} {{IPA|/ˈin.fe.roːs/}} > {{IPA|[ˈĩː.fæ.roːs]}}{{cleanup inline|date=May 2025|æ had been [[Special:Diff/1177127245]] removed from this article}} (written as {{lang|la|iferos}})
Those long nasal vowels had the same quality as ordinary long vowels. In [[Vulgar Latin]], the vowels lost their nasalisation, and they merged with the long vowels (which were themselves shortened by that time). This is shown by many forms in the Romance languages, such as Spanish {{lang|es|costar}} from Vulgar Latin {{lang|la|cōstāre}} (originally {{lang|la|constāre}}) and Italian {{lang|it|mese}} from Vulgar Latin {{lang|la|mēse}} (Classical Latin {{lang|la|mensem}}). On the other hand, the short vowel and {{IPA|/n/}} were restored, for example, in French {{lang|fr|enseigne}} and {{lang|fr|enfant}} from {{lang|la|insignia}} and {{lang|la|infantem}} ({{angbr|e}} is the normal development of Latin short {{angbr|i}}), likely by analogy with other forms beginning in the prefix {{lang|la|in-}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=55, 56}}</ref>

When a final {{angbr|m}} occurred before a plosive or nasal in the next word, however, it was pronounced as a nasal at the place of articulation of the following consonant. For instance, {{lang|la|tan dūrum}} {{IPA|[tan ˈduː.rũː]}} was written for {{lang|la|tam dūrum}} in inscriptions, and {{lang|la|cum nōbīs}} {{IPA|[kʊn ˈnoː.biːs]}} was a [[double entendre]],<ref name="Allen -Vm" /> presumably for {{lang|la|cunnō bis}} {{IPA|[ˈkʊnnoː bɪs]}}.

====Diphthongs====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Diphthongs classified by beginning sound
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! Close
| || '''''ui'''''{{spaces|4}}{{IPA|ui̯}}
|-
! Mid
| '''''ei'''''{{spaces|4}}{{IPA|ei̯}}<br />'''''eu'''''{{spaces|4}}{{IPA|eu̯}} || '''''oe'''''{{spaces|4}}{{IPA|oe̯ ~ eː}}<br />
|-
! Open
| colspan="2" | '''''ae'''''{{spaces|4}}{{IPA|ae̯ ~ ɛː}}<br />'''''au'''''{{spaces|4}}{{IPA|au̯}}
|}
{{angbr|ae}}, {{angbr|oe}}, {{angbr|au}}, {{angbr|ei}} and {{angbr|eu}} could represent diphthongs: {{angbr|ae}} represented {{IPA|/ae̯/}}, {{angbr|oe}} represented {{IPA|/oe̯/}}, {{angbr|au}} represented {{IPA|/au̯/}}, {{angbr|ei}} represented {{IPA|/ei̯/}}, and {{angbr|eu}} represented {{IPA|/eu̯/}}. {{angbr|ui}} sometimes represented the diphthong {{IPA|/ui̯/}}, as in {{lang|la|cui}} {{audio|La-cls-cui.oga|listen}} and {{lang|la|huic}}.<ref name="ui" /> The diphthong {{angbr|ei}} had mostly changed to {{angbr|ī}} by the Classical epoch; {{angbr|ei}} remained only in a few words, such as the interjection {{lang|la|hei}}.

If there is a [[tréma]] above the second vowel, both vowels are pronounced separately: {{angbr|aë}} {{IPA|[ä.ɛ]}}, {{angbr|aü}} {{IPA|[a.ʊ]}}, {{angbr|eü}} {{IPA|[e.ʊ]}} and {{angbr|oë}} {{IPA|[ɔ.ɛ]}}. However, disyllabic {{angbr|eu}} in morpheme borders is traditionally written without the tréma: {{lang|la|meus}} {{IPA|[ˈme.ʊs]}} 'my'.

In Old Latin, {{angbr|ae}} and {{angbr|oe}} were written as {{angbr|ai}}, {{angbr|oi}} and probably pronounced as {{IPA|[äi̯]}} and {{IPA|[oi̯]}}, with a fully closed second element, similar to the final syllable in French {{Audio|Fr-travail.ogg|''travail''}}. In the late Old Latin period, the last element of the diphthongs was lowered to {{IPA|[e]}},<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|1962}}</ref> so that the diphthongs were pronounced {{IPA|[äe̯]}} and {{IPA|[oe̯]}} in Classical Latin. They were then monophthongized to {{IPA|[ɛː]}} and {{IPA|[eː]}} respectively, starting in rural areas at the end of the Republican period.{{efn|The simplification was already common in rural speech as far back as the time of [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]] (116 BC – 27 BC): cf. ''De lingua Latina'', 5:97 (referred to in {{Harvnb|Smith|2004|p=47}}).}} The process, however, does not seem to have been completed before the 3rd century AD, and some scholars say that it may have been regular by the 5th century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Clackson|Horrocks|2007|pp=273, 274}}</ref>

===Vowel and consonant length===
Vowel and consonant [[length (phonetics)|length]] were more significant and more clearly defined in Latin than in modern English. Length is the duration of time that a particular sound is held before proceeding to the next sound in a word. In the modern spelling of Latin, especially in dictionaries and academic work, [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]]s are frequently used to mark long vowels: {{angbr|ā}}, {{angbr|ē}}, {{angbr|ī}}, {{angbr|ō}}, {{angbr|ū}} and {{angbr|ȳ}}, while the [[breve]] is sometimes used to indicate that a vowel is short: {{angbr|ă}}, {{angbr|ĕ}}, {{angbr|ĭ}}, {{angbr|ŏ}}, {{angbr|ŭ}} and {{angbr|y̆}}.

Long consonants were usually indicated through doubling, but ancient Latin orthography did not distinguish between the vocalic and consonantal uses of {{angbr|i}} and {{angbr|v}}. Vowel length was indicated only intermittently in classical sources and even then through a variety of means. Later medieval and modern usage tended to omit vowel length altogether. A short-lived convention of spelling long vowels by doubling the vowel letter is associated with the poet [[Lucius Accius]]. Later spelling conventions marked long vowels with an [[Apex (Latin spelling)|apex]] (a diacritic similar to an [[acute accent]]) or, in the case of long i, by increasing the height of the letter ([[long i]]); in the second century AD, those were given apices as well.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=65}}</ref> The Classical vowel length system faded in later Latin and ceased to be phonemic in Romance, having been replaced by contrasts in vowel quality. Consonant length, however, remains contrastive in much of Italo-Romance, cf. Italian {{lang|it|nono}} "ninth" versus {{lang|it|nonno}} "grandfather".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.italianlanguageguide.com/pronunciation/consonants/double-consonants.asp|title=Pronouncing Italian double consonants|website=www.italianlanguageguide.com|access-date=2019-03-03}}</ref>

[[File:La-cls-anus, annus, anus.ogg|thumb|Recording of {{lang|la|ānus, annus, anus}}]]
A [[minimal pair|minimal set]] showing both long and short vowels and long and short consonants is {{lang|la|ānus}} {{IPA|/ˈaː.nus/}} ('anus'), {{lang|la|annus}} {{IPA|/ˈan.nus/}} ('year'), {{lang|la|anus}} {{IPA|/ˈa.nus/}} ('old woman').

===Table of orthography===

The letters {{angbr|b}}, {{angbr|d}}, {{angbr|f}}, {{angbr|h}}, {{angbr|m}}, {{angbr|n}} are always pronounced as in English {{IPA|[b]}}, {{IPA|[d]}}, {{IPA|[f]}}, {{IPA|[h]}}, {{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}} respectively, and they do not usually cause any difficulties. The exceptions are mentioned below:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Pronunciation of Latin consonants
|-
! Latin<br />grapheme !! Latin<br />phoneme !! English approximation
|-
! {{angbr|C}}, {{angbr|K}}
! {{IPA|[k]}}
| Always hard as ''k'' in ''sky'', never [[hard and soft C|soft]] as in ''cellar'', ''cello'', or ''social''. {{angbr|k}} is a letter coming from Greek, but seldom used and generally replaced by {{angbr|c}}.
|-
! {{angbr|CH}}
! {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| As ''ch'' in ''chemistry'', and aspirated; never as in ''challenge'' or ''change'' and also never as in ''Bach'' or ''chutzpah.'' Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|χ}}}}, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
|-
! {{angbr|G}}
! {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
| Always hard as ''g'' in ''good'', never [[hard and soft G|soft]] as ''g'' in ''gem''.
|-
! {{angbr|GN}}
! {{IPA|[ɡn ~ ŋn]}}
| As ''ngn'' in ''wingnut''.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|I}}
! {{IPA|[j]}}
| Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as ''y'' in ''yard'', never as ''j'' in ''just''.
|-
! {{IPA|[jː]}}
| Geminated between vowels, as ''y y'' in ''toy yacht''.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|L}}
! {{IPA|[l]}}
| When doubled {{angbr|ll}} or before {{angbr|i}}, as clear ''l'' in ''link'' (known as {{lang|la|L exilis}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Sihler|1995|p=174}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=33–34}}</ref>
|-
! {{IPA|[ɫ]}}
| In all other positions,{{dubious|date=October 2023}}{{citation needed|date=October 2023}} as dark ''l'' in ''bowl'' (known as {{lang|la|L pinguis}}).
|-
! {{angbr|P}}
! {{IPA|[p]}}
| As ''p'' in ''spy'', unaspirated.
|-
! {{angbr|PH}}
! {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
| As ''p'' in ''party'', always aspirated; never as in ''photo'' when being pronounced in English. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|φ}}}}, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
|-
! {{angbr|QV}}
! {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| Similar to ''qu'' in ''quick'', never as ''qu'' in ''antique''. Before {{angbr|i}}, like ''cu'' in French {{lang|fr|cuir}}. 
|-
! {{angbr|QVV}}
! {{IPA|[kʷɔ ~ kʷu ~ ku]}}
| There were two trends: the educated and popular pronunciation. Within educated circles it was pronounced {{IPA|[kʷɔ]}}, evoking the [[Old Latin]] pronunciation ({{lang|la|equos}}, {{lang|la|sequontur}}); meanwhile, within popular circles it was pronounced {{IPA|[ku]}} ({{lang|la|ecus}}, {{lang|la|secuntur}}).<ref name="Traina & Perini 1998">{{Citation|last1=Traina |first1=Alfonso |last2= Perini |first2=Giorgio Bernardi |title= Propedeutica al latino universitario |year=1998 |pages=62–63 |ref=TrainaPropedeutica |language=it}}</ref><ref name="Traina 2002">{{cite book|author-link1=Alfonso Traina|first=Alfonso|last=Traina|title=L'alfabeto e la pronunzia del latino|publisher=Pàtron|location=Bologna|year=2002|edition=5|pages=44 and 59–60}}. Traina cites various sources: Quintilianus (I, 7, 26) certifies that his teachers had the group 'vo' written in its epoch by now writing 'vu'; Velio Longo (VII 58 K.) attests the spelling 'quu' pronounced {{IPA|[ku]}}; various inscriptions from different periods even show the spelling 'cu' for 'quu'.</ref>
|-
! {{angbr|R}}
! {{IPA|[r]}}
| As ''r'' in Italian and several Romance languages.
|-
! {{angbr|RH}}
! {{IPA|[r̥]}}
| As ''r'' in Italian and several Romance languages, but voiceless; e.g. {{lang|la|diarrhoea}} {{angbr|{{lang|grc|διάῤῥοια}}}}. (see [[Voiceless alveolar trill]]). Transcription of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ῥ}}}}, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
|-
! {{angbr|S}}
! {{IPA|[s]}}
| As ''s'' in ''say'', never as ''s'' in ''rise'' or ''measure''.
|-
! {{angbr|T}}
! {{IPA|[t]}}
| As ''t'' in ''stay''
|-
! {{angbr|TH}}
! {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| As ''th'' in ''thyme'', and aspirated; never as in ''thing'', or ''that.'' Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|θ}}}}, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
|-
! {{angbr|V}}
! {{IPA|[w]}}
| Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after {{angbr|g}} and {{angbr|s}}, as ''w'' in ''wine'', never as ''v'' in ''vine''.
|-
! {{angbr|VV}}
! {{IPA|[wɔ ~ wu]}}
| As ''one'' is pronounced in some English accents, but without the nasal sound: {{lang|la|parvus}} {{IPA|[ˈpɐr.wɔs]}}, {{lang|la|vivunt}} {{IPA|[ˈwiː.wɔnt]}}. The spelling {{angbr|vu}} is post-classical, made in order to become regular in spelling.<ref name="Traina & Perini 1998" /><ref name="Traina 2002"/>
|-
! {{angbr|X}}
! {{IPA|[ks]}}
| A letter representing {{angbr|c}} + {{angbr|s}}, as well as {{angbr|g}} + {{angbr|s}}: as ''x'' in English ''axe''.
|-
! {{angbr|Z}}
! {{IPA|[d͡z ~ zː]}}
| As in ''zoom'', never as in ''pizza'' (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ζ}}}}.
|}
{| class=wikitable
|+ Pronunciation of Latin vowels
! Latin<br />grapheme
! Latin<br />phone
! English approximation
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|A}}
! {{IPA|[ä]}}
| Similar to ''u'' in ''cut'' when short. Transliteration of Greek short {{angbr|{{lang|grc|α}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[äː]}}
| Similar to ''a'' in ''father'' when long. Transliteration of Greek long {{angbr|{{lang|grc|α}}}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|E}}
! {{IPA|[ɛ]}} 
| As ''e'' in ''pet'' when short. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ε}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[eː]}}
| Similar to ''ey'' in ''they'' when long. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|η}}}}, and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ει}}}} in some cases.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|I}}
! {{IPA|[ɪ]}}
| As ''i'' in ''sit'' when short. Transliteration of short Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ι}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[iː]}}
| Similar to ''i'' in ''machine'' when long. Transliteration of Greek long {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ι}}}}, and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ει}}}} in some cases.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|O}}
! {{IPA|[ɔ]}}
| As ''o'' in ''sort'' when short. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ο}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[oː]}}
| Similar to ''o'' in ''holy'' when long. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ω}}}}, and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ου}}}} in some cases.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|V}}
! {{IPA|[ʊ]}}
| Similar to ''u'' in ''put'' when short.
|-
! {{IPA|[uː]}}
| Similar to ''u'' in ''true'' when long. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ου}}}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|Y}}
! {{IPA|[ʏ]}}
| As in German ''Stück'' when short (or as short ''u'' or ''i'') (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek short {{angbr|{{lang|grc|υ}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[yː]}}
| As in German ''früh'' when long (or as long ''u'' or ''i'') (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek long {{angbr|{{lang|grc|υ}}}}.
|}
{| class=wikitable
|+ Pronunciation of Latin diphthongs
! Latin<br />grapheme
! Latin<br />phone
! English approximation
|-
! {{angbr|AE}}
! {{IPA|[ae̯]}}
| As in ''aisle''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|αι}}}}.
|-
! {{angbr|AV}}
! {{IPA|[au̯]}} 
| As in ''out''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|αυ}}}}.
|-
! {{angbr|EI}}
! {{IPA|[ei̯]}}
| As in ''ey'' in ''they''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ει}}}} in some cases.
|-
! {{angbr|EV}}
! {{IPA|[eu̯]}}
| As in Portuguese {{lang|pt|eu}}, similar to the British pronunciation of ''ow'' in ''low''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ευ}}}}.
|-
! {{angbr|OE}}
! {{IPA|[oe̯]}}
| As in ''boy''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|οι}}}}.
|-
! {{angbr|VI}}
! {{IPA|[ui̯]}}
| As in Spanish {{lang|es|muy}}, similar to ''hooey''.
|-
! {{angbr|YI}}
! {{IPA|[ʏɪ̯]}}
| Transliteration of the Greek diphthong {{angbr|{{lang|grc|υι}}}}.
|}