Editing Haiti (section)

====Post-Duvalier era (1986–2004)====
[[File:DD-SD-99-03743.jpg|thumb|[[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] returns to Haiti following the [[Operation Uphold Democracy|U.S.-led invasion]] in 1994 designed to remove the [[Raoul Cédras|regime]] installed by the [[1991 Haitian coup d'état]]]]
Following Duvalier's departure, army leader General [[Henri Namphy]] headed a new [[National Council of Government (Haiti)|National Governing Council]].<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> [[Haitian presidential election, 1987|Elections]] scheduled for November 1987 were aborted after dozens of inhabitants were shot in the capital by soldiers and ''Tontons Macoutes''.<ref name=Whitney>{{cite journal |last=Whitney |first=Kathleen Marie |date=1996 |title=Sin, Fraph, and the CIA: U.S. Covert Action in Haiti |journal=Southwestern Journal of Law and Trade in the Americas |volume=3 |issue=2  |pp=303–332}}</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Fraudulent [[Haitian presidential election, 1988|elections followed]] in 1988, in which only 4% of the citizenry voted.<ref name=JC>{{cite web|url=http://www.cartercenter.org/news/documents/doc1379.html|title=Haiti's Election Needs Help|date=30 September 1990|first=Jimmy|last=Carter|author-link=Jimmy Carter|publisher=Carter Center|access-date=10 September 2019|archive-date=20 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920173852/http://www.cartercenter.org/news/documents/doc1379.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> The newly elected president, [[Leslie Manigat]], was then overthrown some months later in the [[June 1988 Haitian coup d'état]].<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name=IACHR>{{cite report |publisher=[[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights]] |url=http://www.iachr.org/countryrep/Haiti88eng/chap.2e.htm |title=Report on the Situation of Human Tights in Haiti |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728093219/http://www.iachr.org/countryrep/Haiti88eng/chap.2e.htm |archive-date=28 July 2020 |number=OEA/Ser.L/V/II.74 doc. 9 rev. 1 |date=7 September 1988}}</ref>

Another [[September 1988 Haitian coup d'état|coup followed]] in September 1988, after the [[St. Jean Bosco massacre]] in which approximately 13 to 50 people attending a mass led by prominent government critic and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] priest [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] were killed.<ref name=IACHR/><ref name=HRW2>{{cite book |author1=Americas Watch Committee (U.S.) |author2=National Coalition for Haitian Refugees, Caribbean Rights (Organization) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YRQPgQr_x04C&q=bosco |title=The More Things Change...: Human Rights in Haiti |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240628034101/https://books.google.com/books?id=YRQPgQr_x04C&q=bosco#v=snippet&q=bosco&f=false |archive-date=28 June 2024 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=1989 |pp=96–8 |isbn=0-929692-14-4}}</ref> General [[Prosper Avril]] subsequently led a military regime until March 1990.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="Rohter">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/15/news/ex-ruler-of-haiti-faces-human-rights-suit-in-us.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206104600/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/15/news/ex-ruler-of-haiti-faces-human-rights-suit-in-us.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 February 2018|title=Ex-Ruler of Haiti Faces Human Rights Suit in U.S.|last=Rohter |first=Larry|date=15 November 1991|work=The New York Times|access-date=10 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Anthony |last1=Payne |first2=Paul K. |last2=Sutton |date=1993 |title=Modern Caribbean politics |publisher=JHU Press |p=90}}</ref>

Avril transferred power to the army chief of staff, General [[Hérard Abraham]], on 10 March 1990. Abraham gave up power three days later, becoming the only military leader in Haiti during the twentieth century to voluntarily give up power. Abraham later helped to secure the [[1990–91 Haitian general election]].<ref>{{cite report |title=The 1990 General Elections in Haiti |publisher=National Democratic Institute for International Affairs |date=1991 |url=https://www.cartercenter.org/documents/electionreports/democracy/finalreporthaiti1990.pdf |p=4 |isbn=1-880134-08-X}}</ref>

In December 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected president in the [[Haitian general election, 1990–91|Haitian general election]]. However, his ambitious reformist agenda worried the elites, and in September of the following year he was overthrown by the military, led by [[Raoul Cédras]], in the [[1991 Haitian coup d'état]].<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Edward Jr. |last2=Cole |first2=Timothy M. |date=1996 |title=Regime Legitimation in Instances of Coup-Caused Governments-in-Exile: The Cases of Presidents Makarios and Aristide |journal=Journal of International Law & Practice |volume=5 |issue=2 |p=220}}</ref> Amidst the continuing turmoil many Haitians attempted to flee the country.<ref name="Bradt17"/><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>

In September 1994, the United States negotiated the departure of Haiti's military leaders and the peaceful entry of 20,000 US troops under [[Operation Uphold Democracy]].<ref name="Bradt17"/> This enabled the restoration of the democratically elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president, who returned to Haiti in October to complete his term.<ref name="CCHaiti">{{cite web|publisher=The Carter Center|title=Activities by Country: Haiti|url=http://www.cartercenter.org/countries/haiti.html|access-date=19 February 2010|archive-date=20 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920173124/http://www.cartercenter.org/countries/haiti.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Manegol|first=Catherine S.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/16/world/mission-haiti-scene-for-aristide-s-followers-every-step-dance-every-cheer-song.html|title=For Aristide's Followers, Every Step Is a Dance, Every Cheer a Song|work=The New York Times|date=16 October 1994|access-date=24 July 2013|archive-date=22 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922090800/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/16/world/mission-haiti-scene-for-aristide-s-followers-every-step-dance-every-cheer-song.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As part of the deal Aristide had to implement free market reforms in an attempt to improve the Haitian economy, with mixed results.<ref name="Bell">{{cite book|last=Bell|first=Beverly|date=2013|title=Fault Lines: Views across Haiti's Divide|location=Ithaca, NY|publisher=Cornell University Press|pages=30–38|isbn=978-0-8014-7769-0}}</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> In November 1994, [[Hurricane Gordon (1994)|Hurricane Gordon]] brushed Haiti, dumping heavy rain and creating [[flash flood]]ing that triggered mudslides. Gordon killed an estimated 1,122 people, although some estimates go as high as 2,200.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hurricane Gordon 1994|publisher=Hurricane Central|url=http://hurricanecentral.freeservers.com/Prelim_Reports/1994_Gordon.htm|access-date=4 October 2016|archive-date=22 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922111011/http://hurricanecentral.freeservers.com/Prelim_Reports/1994_Gordon.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Hurricane Gordon 1994|publisher=NOAA|url=http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/gordon94.html|access-date=4 October 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007062220/http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/gordon94.html|archive-date=7 October 2016}}</ref>

[[1995 Haitian general election|Elections]] were held in 1995 which were won by [[René Préval]], gaining 88% of the popular vote, albeit on a low turnout.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc/2137_95.htm |title=Haiti: Elections held in 1995 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305135914/http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc/2137_95.htm |archive-date=5 March 2016 |publisher=Inter-Parliamentary Union}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Dieter Nohlen |last=Nohlen |first=D. |date=2005 |title=Elections in the Americas: A data handbook |volume=I |p=392 |isbn=978-0-19-928357-6}}</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Aristide subsequently formed his own party, [[Fanmi Lavalas]], and political deadlock ensued; the [[Haitian presidential election, 2000|November 2000 election]] returned Aristide to the presidency with 92% of the vote.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hallward|first=P.|title=Damming the Flood:Haiti, Aristide, and the Politics of containment|location=London, UK|publisher=Verso Books|year=2007|pages=xiii, 78–79}}</ref> The election had been boycotted by the opposition, then organized into the [[Convergence Démocratique]], over a dispute in the [[Haitian legislative election, 2000|May legislative elections]]. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence between rival political factions and [[human rights abuse]]s.<ref name="Bradt19">Clammer, Paul (2016), ''Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti'', p. 19.</ref><ref name="bussandgardner">{{cite book|last1=Buss|first1=Terry F.|last2=Gardner|first2=Adam|title=Haiti in the Balance: Why Foreign Aid Has Failed and What We Can Do about It|url=https://archive.org/details/haitiinbalancewh00buss|url-access=registration|date=2009|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|isbn=978-0-8157-0164-4}}</ref> Aristide spent years negotiating with the Convergence Démocratique on new elections, but the Convergence's inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive.{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}

In 2004, [[2004 Haitian coup d'état|an anti-Aristide revolt began]] in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital, and Aristide was forced into exile.<ref name="Bradt19"/><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> The precise nature of the events are disputed; some, including Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, stated that he was the victim of a "new [[coup d'état]] or modern kidnapping" by U.S. forces.<ref name="Bradt19"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/186/34344.html|title=Aristide Kidnapped by US Forces?|publisher=Globalpolicy.org|date=1 March 2004|access-date=24 July 2013|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807130449/https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/186/34344.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.democracynow.org/2004/3/16/exclusive_aristide_and_his_bodyguard_describe|title=Exclusive: Aristide and His Bodyguard Describe the U.S. Role In His Ouster|publisher=[[Democracy Now!|Democracynow.org]]|date=16 March 2004|access-date=24 July 2013|archive-date=22 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922093612/https://www.democracynow.org/2004/3/16/exclusive_aristide_and_his_bodyguard_describe|url-status=live}}</ref> These charges were denied by the US government.<ref>{{cite news|last=Buschschluter|first=Vanessa|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8460185.stm|title=The long history of troubled ties between Haiti and the US|work=BBC News|date=16 January 2010|access-date=24 July 2013|archive-date=1 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901044512/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8460185.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Bradt19"/> As political violence and crime continued to grow, a [[United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti|United Nations Stabilisation Mission (MINUSTAH)]] was brought in to maintain order.<ref name="Bradt20">Clammer, Paul (2016), ''Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti'', p. 20.</ref> However, MINUSTAH proved controversial, since their periodically heavy-handed approach to maintaining law and order and several instances of abuses, including the alleged sexual abuse of civilians, provoked resentment and distrust among ordinary Haitians.<ref>{{cite news|last=Varner|first=Bill|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=az0cdhHzic3M|title=Haitian Gangs Seek Truce That Would Ease Elections|publisher=Bloomberg.com|date=25 August 2005|access-date=24 July 2013|archive-date=16 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916205622/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Klarreich|first=Kathie|title=Will the United Nations' legacy in Haiti be all about scandal?|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/2012/0613/Will-the-United-Nations-legacy-in-Haiti-be-all-about-scandal|newspaper=The Christian Science Monitor|access-date=10 September 2013|date=13 June 2012|archive-date=21 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921235743/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/2012/0613/Will-the-United-Nations-legacy-in-Haiti-be-all-about-scandal|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>

[[Boniface Alexandre]] assumed interim authority until 2006, when René Préval was re-elected President following [[Haitian general election, 2006|elections]] with 55% voter turnout.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2024-05-22 |title=‘Unwilling to Stop’: What it Takes to Be a Local Reporter in Haiti |url=https://globalpressjournal.com/americas/haiti/unwilling-stop-global-press-journalists-haiti-keep-seeking-stories-matter/ |access-date=2025-05-06 |website=Global Press Journal |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Bradt20"/><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="thompson2006">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/10/international/10haiti.html|last=Thompson|first=Ginger|title=Candidate of Haiti's Poor Leads in Early Tally With 61% of Vote.|work=The New York Times|date=10 February 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424203107/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/10/international/10haiti.html|archive-date=24 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>