Haiti
Template:Short description Template:Redirect Template:Pp-vandalism Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox country Haiti,Template:Efn officially the Republic of Haiti,Template:EfnTemplate:Efn is a country on the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and south of the Bahamas. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island, which it shares with the Dominican Republic.<ref name="Dardik">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Current Affairs">Template:Cite web</ref> Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean, and with an estimated population of 11.4 million, is the most populous Caribbean country.Template:UN Population<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The capital and largest city is Port-au-Prince.
Haiti was originally inhabited by the Taíno people.<ref name="national-geographic">Template:Cite news</ref> In 1492, Christopher Columbus established the first European settlement in the Americas, La Navidad, on its northeastern coast.<ref name="Davies1953">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref> The island was part of the Spanish Empire until 1697, when the western portion was ceded to France and became Saint-Domingue, dominated by sugarcane plantations worked by enslaved Africans. The 1791–1804 Haitian Revolution made Haiti the first sovereign state in the Caribbean, the second republic in the Americas, the first country in the Americas to officially abolish slavery, and the only country in history established by a slave revolt.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The 19th century saw political instability, international isolation, debt to France, and failed invasions of the Dominican Republic, including a costly war. U.S. forces occupied Haiti from 1915 to 1934,<ref name="Haite1934">Template:Cite book - p 223
The Haitian and U.S. governments reached a mutually satisfactory agreement in the Executive Accord of August 7, 1933, and on August 15, the last marines departed.</ref> followed by dictatorial rule of the Duvalier family (1957–1986). After a coup d'état in 2004, the United Nations intervened. In the 2010s, a catastrophic earthquake and a deadly cholera outbreak devastated the country.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Haiti is a founding member of the United Nations, Organization of American States,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Association of Caribbean States,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and the Template:Lang. In addition to CARICOM, it is a member of the International Monetary Fund,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> World Trade Organization,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. Historically poor and politically unstable, Haiti has faced severe economic and political crises, gang activity,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and the collapse of its government. One of the world's least developed countries, and with no elected officials remaining, Haiti has been described as a failed state.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Etymology
[edit]Haiti (also earlier Hayti)Template:Efn comes from the indigenous Taíno language and means "land of high mountains";<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> it was the native nameTemplate:Efn for the entire island of Hispaniola. The name was restored by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In French, the ï in Haïti has a diacritical mark (used to show that the second vowel is pronounced separately, as in the word naïve), while the H is silent.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> (In English, this rule for the pronunciation is often disregarded, thus the spelling Haiti is used.) There are different anglicizations for its pronunciation such as HIGH-ti, high-EE-ti and haa-EE-ti, which are still in use, but HAY-ti is the most widespread and best-established.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In French, Haiti's nickname means the "Pearl of the Antilles" (La Perle des Antilles) because of both its natural beauty<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and the amount of wealth it accumulated for the Kingdom of France.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In Haitian Creole, it is spelled and pronounced with a y but no H: Template:Langx. Another theory on the name Haiti is its origin in African tradition; in Fon language, one of the most spoken by the bossales (Haitians born in Africa), Ayiti-Tomè means: "From nowadays this land is our land."Template:Citation needed
In the Haitian community the country has multiple nicknames: Ayiti-Toma (as its origin in Ayiti Tomè), Ayiti-Cheri (Ayiti my Darling), Tè-Desalin (Dessalines' Land) or Lakay (Home).Template:Citation needed
History
[edit]Pre-Columbian era
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The island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western three-eighths,<ref name="Dardik" /><ref name="Current Affairs" /> has been inhabited since around 6,000 years ago by Native Americans who are thought to have arrived from Central or northern South America. These Archaic Age people are thought to have been largely hunter gatherers. During the 1st millennium BC, the Arawakan-speaking ancestors of the Taino people began to migrate into the Caribbean. Unlike the Archaic peoples, they practiced the intensive production of pottery and agriculture. The earliest evidence of the ancestors of the Taino people on Hispaniola is the Ostionoid culture, which dates to around 600 AD.<ref name=":132">Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:MainIn Taíno society the largest unit of political organization was led by a cacique, or chief, as the Europeans understood them. At the time of European contact, the island of Hispaniola was divided among five 'caciquedoms': the Magua in the northeast, the Marien in the northwest, the Jaragua in the southwest, the Maguana in the central regions of Cibao, and the Higüey in the southeast.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Taíno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern-day Léogâne, started as a French colonial town in the southwest, is beside the former capital of the caciquedom of Xaragua.<ref name="royal">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Colonial era
[edit]Spanish rule (1492–1625)
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Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named Môle-Saint-Nicolas,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile. Nineteen days later, his ship the Santa María ran aground near the present site of Cap-Haïtien. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement of La Navidad on 25 December 1492.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti">Template:Cite web</ref> Relations with the native peoples, initially good, broke down and the settlers were later killed by the Taíno.<ref name="Bradt10">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 10.</ref>
The sailors carried endemic Eurasian infectious diseases, causing epidemics that killed a large number of native people.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The first recorded smallpox epidemic in the Americas erupted on Hispaniola in 1507.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Their numbers were further reduced by the harshness of the Template:Lang system, in which the Spanish forced natives to work in gold mines and plantations.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Bradt10"/>
The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos (1512–1513), which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and gave legal framework to Template:Lang. The natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>
As the Spanish re-focused their colonization efforts on the greater riches of mainland Central and South America, Hispaniola became reduced largely to a trading and refueling post. As a result piracy became widespread, encouraged by European powers hostile to Spain such as France (based on Île de la Tortue) and England.<ref name="Bradt10"/> The Spanish largely abandoned the western third of the island, focusing their colonization effort on the eastern two-thirds.<ref>Knight, Franklin, The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism, 3rd edn, p. 54, New York, Oxford University Press 1990.</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> The western part of the island was thus gradually settled by French buccaneers; among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco and recruited many French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In 1697 France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island by way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them.<ref name="Bradt11">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 11.</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
French rule (1625–1804)
[edit]France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of Santo Domingo, the Spanish colony on Hispaniola.<ref name="firstcolony">Template:Cite web</ref> The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of those enslaved imported from Africa, and Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession,<ref name="Bradt11"/><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> generating 40% of France’s foreign trade and doubling the wealth generation of all of England’s colonies, combined.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The French settlers were outnumbered by enslaved persons by almost 10 to 1.<ref name="Bradt11"/> According to the 1788 Census, Haiti's population consisted of nearly 25,000 Europeans, 22,000 free coloreds and 700,000 Africans in slavery.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In contrast, by 1763 the white population of French Canada, a far larger territory, had numbered only 65,000.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In the north of the island, those enslaved were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Some West Africans in slavery held on to their traditional Vodou beliefs by secretly syncretizing it with Catholicism.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
The French enacted the Code Noir ("Black Code"), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, which established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms.<ref name="Bradt12">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 12.</ref> Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; at the end of the eighteenth century it was supplying two-thirds of Europe's tropical produce while one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years.<ref name="Farmer-LROB">Template:Cite web</ref> Many enslaved persons died from diseases such as smallpox and typhoid fever.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> They had low birth rates,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and there is evidence that some women aborted fetuses rather than give birth to children within the bonds of slavery.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The colony's environment also suffered, as forests were cleared to make way for plantations and the land was overworked so as to extract maximum profit for French plantation owners.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
As in its Louisiana colony, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color (Template:Lang), the mixed-race descendants of European male colonists and African enslaved females (and later, mixed-race women).<ref name="Bradt11"/> Over time, many were released from slavery and they established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port-au-Prince, and many intermarried within their community.<ref name="Bradt11"/> They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property, including enslaved persons of their own.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="Bradt11"/> The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights.<ref name="Bradt11"/>
The brutality of slave life led many people in bondage to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known as maroons.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> One maroon leader, François Mackandal, led a rebellion in the 1750s; however, he was later captured and executed by the French.<ref name="Bradt11"/>
Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)
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Inspired by the French Revolution of 1789 and principles of the rights of man, the French settlers and free people of color pressed for greater political freedom and more civil rights.<ref name="Bradt12"/> Tensions between these two groups led to conflict, as a militia of free-coloreds was set up in 1790 by Vincent Ogé, resulting in his capture, torture and execution.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Sensing an opportunity, in August 1791 the first slave armies were established in northern Haiti under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture inspired by the Vodou houngan (priest) Boukman, and backed by the Spanish in Santo Domingo – soon a full-blown slave rebellion had broken out across the entire colony.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
In 1792, the French government sent three commissioners with troops to re-establish control; to build an alliance with the gens de couleur and enslaved persons commissioners Léger-Félicité Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel abolished slavery in the colony.<ref name="Bradt12"/> Six months later, the National Convention, led by Maximilien de Robespierre and the Jacobins, endorsed abolition and extended it to all the French colonies.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The United States, which was a new republic itself, oscillated between supporting or not supporting Toussaint Louverture and the emerging country of Haiti, depending on who was President of the US. Washington, who was a slave holder and isolationist, kept the United States neutral, although private US citizens at times provided aid to French planters trying to put down the revolt. John Adams, a vocal opponent of slavery, fully supported the slave revolt by providing diplomatic recognition, financial support, munitions and warships (including the USS Constitution) beginning in 1798. This support ended in 1801 when Jefferson, another slave-holding president, took office and recalled the US Navy.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
With slavery abolished, Toussaint Louverture pledged allegiance to France, and he fought off the British and Spanish forces who had taken advantage of the situation and invaded Saint-Domingue.<ref name="Latin America's Wars: Volume 1">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Spanish were later forced to cede their part of the island to France under the terms of the Peace of Basel in 1795, uniting the island under one government. However, an insurgency against French rule broke out in the east, and in the west there was fighting between Louverture's forces and the free people of color led by André Rigaud in the War of the Knives (1799–1800).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The United States' support for the blacks in the war contributed to their victory over the mulattoes.<ref name=YPT>Template:Cite web</ref> More than 25,000 whites and free blacks left the island as refugees.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
After Louverture created a separatist constitution and proclaimed himself governor-general for life, Napoléon Bonaparte in 1802 sent an expedition of 20,000 soldiers and as many sailors<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> under the command of his brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc, to reassert French control. The French achieved some victories, but within a few months most of their army had died from yellow fever.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Ultimately more than 50,000 French troops died in an attempt to retake the colony, including 18 generals.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The French managed to capture Louverture, transporting him to France for trial. He was imprisoned at Fort de Joux, where he died in 1803 of exposure and possibly tuberculosis.<ref name="Farmer-LROB" /><ref name="Bradt13">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 13.</ref>
The enslaved persons, along with free Template:Lang and allies, continued their fight for independence, led by generals Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Alexandre Pétion and Henry Christophe.<ref name="Bradt13"/> The rebels finally managed to decisively defeat the French troops at the Battle of Vertières on 18 November 1803, establishing the first state ever to successfully gain independence through a slave revolt.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Under the overall command of Dessalines, the Haitian armies avoided open battle, and instead conducted a successful guerrilla campaign against the Napoleonic forces, working with diseases such as yellow fever to reduce the numbers of French soldiers.<ref>C.L.R. James, Black Jacobins (London: Seckur & Warburg, 1938)</ref> Later that year France withdrew its remaining 7,000 troops from the island and Napoleon gave up his idea of re-establishing a North American empire, selling Louisiana (New France) to the United States, in the Louisiana Purchase.<ref name="Bradt13"/>
Throughout the revolution, an estimated 20,000 French troops succumbed to yellow fever, while another 37,000 were killed in action,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> exceeding the total French soldiers killed in action across various 19th-century colonial campaigns in Algeria, Mexico, Indochina, Tunisia, and West Africa, which resulted in approximately 10,000 French soldiers killed in action combined.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The British sustained 45,000 dead.<ref name="Scheina">Template:Cite book</ref> Additionally, 350,000 ex-enslaved Haitians died.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the process, Dessalines became arguably the most successful military commander in the struggle against Napoleonic France.<ref>Christer Petley, White Fury: A Jamaican Slaveholder and the Age of REvolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), p. 182.</ref>
Independent Haiti
[edit]First Empire (1804–1806)
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The independence of Saint-Domingue was proclaimed under the native name 'Haiti' by Jean-Jacques Dessalines on 1 January 1804 in Gonaïves<ref name="autogenerated2">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Bradt209">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 209.</ref> and he was proclaimed "Emperor for Life" as Emperor Jacques I by his troops.<ref>Constitution of Haiti [[[:Template:Sic]]] New-York Evening Post 15 July 1805.</ref> Dessalines at first offered protection to the white planters and others.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, once in power, he ordered the genocide of nearly all the remaining whites; between January and April 1804, 3,000 to 5,000 whites were killed, including those who had been friendly and sympathetic to the black population.<ref name="Davies2008">Template:Cite book</ref> Only three categories of white people were selected out as exceptions and spared: Polish soldiers, some of whom had deserted from the French army and fought alongside the Haitian rebels; the small group of German colonists invited to the north-west region; and a group of medical doctors and professionals.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Reportedly, people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were also spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Fearful of the potential impact the slave rebellion could have in the slave states, U.S. President Thomas Jefferson refused to recognize the new republic. The Southern politicians who were a powerful voting bloc in the American Congress prevented U.S. recognition for decades until they withdrew in 1861 to form the Confederacy.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The revolution led to a wave of emigration.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 1809, 9,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue, both white planters and people of color, settled en masse in New Orleans, doubling the city's population, having been expelled from their initial refuge in Cuba by Spanish authorities.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In addition, the newly arrived enslaved persons added to the city's African population.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The plantation system was re-established in Haiti, albeit for wages; however, many Haitians were marginalized and resented the heavy-handed manner in which this was enforced in the new nation's politics.<ref name="Bradt13"/> The rebel movement splintered, and Dessalines was assassinated by rivals on 17 October 1806.<ref name="Haiti">Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Deep link needed<ref name="Bradt13"/>
State of Haiti, Kingdom of Haiti and the Republic (1806–1820)
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After Dessalines' death Haiti became split into two, with the Kingdom of Haiti in the north directed by Henri Christophe, later declaring himself Henri I, and a republic in the south centered on Port-au-Prince, directed by Alexandre Pétion, an homme de couleur.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Pétion's republic was less absolutist, and he initiated a series of land reforms which benefited the peasant class.<ref name="Bradt13"/> President Pétion also gave military and financial assistance to the revolutionary leader Simón Bolívar, which were critical in enabling him to liberate the Viceroyalty of New Granada.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Meanwhile, the French, who had managed to maintain a precarious control of eastern Hispaniola, were defeated by insurgents led by Juan Sánchez Ramírez, with the area returning to Spanish rule in 1809 following the Battle of Palo Hincado.<ref name="RECONQUEST">Template:Cite news</ref>
Unification of Hispaniola (1821–1844)
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Beginning in 1821, President Jean-Pierre Boyer, also an homme de couleur and successor to Pétion, reunified the island following the suicide of Henry Christophe.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> After Santo Domingo declared its independence from Spain on 30 November 1821, Boyer invaded, seeking to unite the entire island by force and ending slavery in Santo Domingo.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>
Struggling to revive the agricultural economy to produce commodity crops, Boyer passed the Code Rural, which denied peasant laborers the right to leave the land, enter the towns, or start farms or shops of their own, causing much resentment as most peasants wished to have their own farms rather than work on plantations.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000 African Americans migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by an American philanthropic group similar in function to the American Colonization Society and its efforts in Liberia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Many found the conditions too harsh and returned to the United States.Template:Citation needed
In July 1825, King Charles X of France, during a period of restoration of the French monarchy, sent a fleet to reconquer Haiti. Under pressure, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France formally recognized the independence of the state in exchange for a payment of 150 million francs, or $560 million in today's dollars.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> By an order of 17 April 1826, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty and formally recognized the independence of Haiti.<ref name="FrenchEmbassy">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>M. Degros, Création des postes diplomatiques et consulaires, Revue d'histoire diplomatique, 1986; in French</ref><ref>J-F. Brière, Haïti et la France, 1804–1848 : le rêve brisé, Paris, Karthala 2008; in French</ref> The enforced payments to France hampered Haiti's economic growth for years, exacerbated by the fact that many Western states continued to refuse formal diplomatic recognition to Haiti; Britain recognized Haitian independence in 1833, and the United States not until 1862.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Haiti borrowed heavily from Western banks at extremely high interest rates to repay the debt, an amount estimated to be between $21 billion and $115 billion in lost economic growth over time, or as much as eight times the size of Haiti's economy in 2020.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Although the amount of the reparations was reduced to 90 million in 1838, by 1900 80% of Haiti's government spending was debt repayment and the country did not finish repaying it until 1947.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Bradt13"/>
Loss of the Spanish portion of the island
[edit]Template:Main After losing the support of Haiti's elite, Boyer was ousted in 1843, with Charles Rivière-Hérard replacing him as president.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Nationalist Dominican forces in eastern Hispaniola led by Juan Pablo Duarte seized control of Santo Domingo on 27 February 1844.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> The Haitian forces, unprepared for a significant uprising, capitulated to the rebels, effectively ending Haitian rule of eastern Hispaniola. In March Rivière-Hérard attempted to reimpose his authority, but the Dominicans inflicted heavy losses.<ref name="Bethell" /> Rivière-Hérard was removed from office by the mulatto hierarchy and replaced with the aged general Philippe Guerrier, who assumed the presidency on 3 May 1844.Template:Citation needed
Guerrier died in April 1845, and was succeeded by General Jean-Louis Pierrot.<ref name="leger197">Template:Citation-attribution</ref> Pierrot's most pressing duty as the new president was to check the incursions of the Dominicans, who were harassing the Haitian troops.<ref name="leger197"/> Dominican gunboats were also making depredations on Haiti's coasts.<ref name="leger197" /> President Pierrot decided to open a campaign against the Dominicans, whom he considered merely as insurgents; however, the Haitian offensive of 1845 was stopped on the frontier.<ref name="Bethell">Template:Cite book</ref>
On 1 January 1846 Pierrot announced a fresh campaign to reimpose Haitian suzerainty over eastern Hispaniola, but his officers and men greeted this fresh summons with contempt.<ref name="Bethell" /> Thus, a month later – February 1846 – when Pierrot ordered his troops to march against the Dominicans, the Haitian army mutinied, and its soldiers proclaimed his overthrow as president of the republic.<ref name="Bethell" /> With the war against the Dominicans having become very unpopular in Haiti, it was beyond the power of the new president, General Jean-Baptiste Riché, to stage another invasion.<ref name="Bethell" />
Second Empire (1849–1859)
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On 27 February 1847, President Riché died after only a year in power and was replaced by an obscure officer, General Faustin Soulouque.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> During the first two years of Soulouque's administration the conspiracies and opposition he faced in retaining power were so manifold that the Dominicans were given a further breathing space in which to consolidate their independence.<ref name="Bethell" /> But, when in 1848 France finally recognized the Dominican Republic as a free and independent state and provisionally signed a treaty of peace, friendship, commerce and navigation, Haiti immediately protested, claiming the treaty was an attack upon their own security.<ref name="Bethell" /> Soulouque decided to invade the new Republic before the French Government could ratify the treaty.<ref name="Bethell" />
On 21 March 1849, Haitian soldiers attacked the Dominican garrison at Las Matas. The demoralized defenders offered almost no resistance before abandoning their weapons. Soulouque pressed on, capturing San Juan. This left only the town of Azua as the remaining Dominican stronghold between the Haitian army and the capital. On 6 April, Azua fell to the 18,000-strong Haitian army, with a 5,000-man Dominican counterattack failing to oust them.<ref name="Latin America's Wars: Volume 1"/> The way to Santo Domingo was now clear. But the news of discontent existing at Port-au-Prince, which reached Soulouque, arrested his further progress and caused him to return with the army to his capital.<ref name="Jacques">Template:Citation-attribution</ref>
Emboldened by the sudden retreat of the Haitian army, the Dominicans counter-attacked. Their flotilla went as far as Dame-Marie on the west coast of Haiti, which they plundered and set on fire.<ref name="Jacques" /> After another Haitian campaign in 1855, Britain and France intervened and obtained an armistice on behalf of the Dominicans, who declared independence as the Dominican Republic.<ref name="Jacques" />
The sufferings endured by the soldiers during the campaign of 1855, and the losses and sacrifices inflicted on the country without yielding any compensation or any practical results provoked great discontent.<ref name="Jacques" /> In 1858 a revolution began, led by General Fabre Geffrard, Duke of Tabara. In December of that year, Geffrard defeated the Imperial Army and seized control of most of the country.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> As a result, the Emperor abdicated his throne on 15 January 1859. Faustin was taken into exile and General Geffrard succeeded him as president.Template:Citation needed
Late 19th century–early 20th century
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The period following Soulouque's overthrow down to the turn of the century was a turbulent one for Haiti, with repeated bouts of political instability. President Geffrard was overthrown in a coup in 1867,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> as was his successor, Sylvain Salnave, in 1869.<ref>Template:Citation-attribution</ref> Under the Presidency of Michel Domingue (1874–76) relations with the Dominican Republic were dramatically improved by the signing of a treaty, in which both parties acknowledged the independence of the other. Some modernisation of the economy and infrastructure also occurred in this period, especially under the Presidencies of Lysius Salomon (1879–1888) and Florvil Hyppolite (1889–1896).<ref>Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors by Jacques Nicolas Léger, University of Michigan, 2006, 235–236</ref>
Haiti's relations with outside powers were often strained. In 1889 the United States attempted to force Haiti to permit the building of a naval base at Môle Saint-Nicolas, which was firmly resisted by President Hyppolite.<ref name="leger245">Template:Citation-attribution</ref> In 1892 the German government supported suppression of the reform movement of Anténor Firmin, and in 1897, the Germans used gunboat diplomacy to intimidate and then humiliate the Haitian government of President Tirésias Simon Sam (1896–1902) during the Lüders Affair.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In the first decades of the 20th century, Haiti experienced great political instability and was heavily in debt to France, Germany and the United States. A series of short lived presidencies came and went: President Pierre Nord Alexis was forced from power in 1908,<ref>"Hurry Election Of Simon In Haiti; Followers Fear Delay May Cause Disorders And Invite Intervention From United States" Template:Webarchive New York Times 8 December 1908</ref><ref>"Simon Elected President; Following Action by Haitian Congress, He Is Recognized By The United States" Template:Webarchive, The New York Times 18 December 1908</ref> as was his successor François C. Antoine Simon in 1911;<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> President Cincinnatus Leconte (1911–12) was killed in a (possibly deliberate) explosion at the National Palace;<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Michel Oreste (1913–14) was ousted in a coup, as was his successor Oreste Zamor in 1914.<ref>Kaplan, U.S. Imperialism in Latin America, p. 61.</ref>
United States occupation (1915–1934)
[edit]Germany increased its influence in Haiti in this period, with a small community of German settlers wielding disproportionate influence in Haiti's economy.<ref name=state>Occupation of Haiti, 1915–34 Template:Webarchive, US Department of State</ref><ref name="Bradt15"/> The German influence prompted anxieties in the United States, who had also invested heavily in the country, and whose government defended their right to oppose foreign interference in the Americas under the Monroe Doctrine.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="Bradt15"/> In December 1914, the Americans removed $500,000 from the Haitian National Bank, but rather than seize it to help pay the debt, it was removed for safe-keeping in New York, thus giving the United States control of the bank and preventing other powers from doing so. This gave a stable financial base on which to build the economy, and to enable the debt to be repaid.<ref>Office of the Historian, U.S. Government. U.S. Invasion and Occupation of Haiti, 1915–34 Template:Webarchive</ref>
In 1915, Haiti's new President Vilbrun Guillaume Sam sought to strengthen his tenuous rule by a mass execution of 167 political prisoners. Outrage at the killings led to riots, and Sam was captured and killed by a lynch mob.<ref name="Bradt15">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 15.</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Fearing possible foreign intervention, or the emergence of a new government led by the anti-American Haitian politician Rosalvo Bobo, President Woodrow Wilson sent U.S. Marines into Haiti in July 1915. The Template:USS, under Rear Admiral Caperton, arrived in Port-au-Prince in an attempt to restore order and protect U.S. interests. Within days, the Marines had taken control of the capital city and its banks and customs house. The Marines declared martial law and severely censored the press. Within weeks, a new pro-U.S. Haitian president, Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave, was installed and a new constitution written that was favorable to the interests of the United States. The constitution (written by future US President Franklin D. Roosevelt) included a clause that allowed, for the first time, foreign ownership of land in Haiti, which was bitterly opposed by the Haitian legislature and citizenry.<ref name="Bradt15"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The occupation improved some of Haiti's infrastructure and centralized power in Port-au-Prince.<ref name="Bradt15"/> 1700 km of roads were made usable, 189 bridges were built, many irrigation canals were rehabilitated, hospitals, schools, and public buildings were constructed, and drinking water was brought to the main cities.Template:Citation needed Agricultural education was organized, with a central school of agriculture and 69 farms in the country.Template:SfnTemplate:Incomplete short citation However, many infrastructure projects were built using the corvée system that allowed the government/occupying forces to take people from their homes and farms, at gunpoint if necessary, to build roads, bridges etc. by force, a process that was deeply resented by ordinary Haitians.<ref>Danticat, Edwidge (28 July 2015), New Yorker Magazine.</ref><ref name="Bradt15"/> Sisal was also introduced to Haiti, and sugarcane and cotton became significant exports, boosting prosperity.<ref name="Henl, pp. 454–455">Henl, pp. 454–455.</ref> Haitian traditionalists, based in rural areas, were highly resistant to U.S.-backed changes, while the urban elites, typically mixed-race, welcomed the growing economy, but wanted more political control.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Together they helped secure an end to the occupation in 1934, under the Presidency of Sténio Vincent (1930–1941).<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The debts were still outstanding, though less due to increased prosperity, and the U.S. financial advisor-general receiver handled the budget until 1941.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
The U.S. Marines were instilled with a special brand of paternalism towards Haitians "expressed in the metaphor of a father's relationship with his children."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Armed opposition to the US presence was led by the cacos under the command of Charlemagne Péralte; his capture and execution in 1919 earned him the status of a national martyr.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="Bradt15"/> During Senate hearings in 1921, the commandant of the Marine Corps reported that, in the 20 months of active unrest, 2,250 Haitians had been killed. However, in a report to the Secretary of the Navy, he reported the death toll as being 3,250.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> Haitian historians have claimed the true number was much higher, but this is not supported by most historians outside Haiti.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Post-occupation era (1934–1957)
[edit]After U.S. forces left in 1934, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo used anti-Haitian sentiment as a nationalist tool. In 1937, in an event that became known as the Parsley Massacre, he ordered his army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border.<ref name="Farmer180">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="wucker">Template:Cite web</ref> Few bullets were used; instead, 20,000–30,000 Haitians were bludgeoned and bayoneted, then herded into the sea, where sharks finished what Trujillo had begun.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The indiscriminate massacre occurred over a period of five days.
Haitian President Vincent, under U.S. pressure owing to his increasingly dictatorial actions, resigned in 1941 and was replaced by Élie Lescot (1941–46).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 1941, during the Second World War, Lescot declared war on Japan (8 December), Germany (12 December), Italy (12 December), Bulgaria (24 December), Hungary (24 December) and Romania (24 December).<ref>Dr Erik Goldstein, Routledge, 2005, Wars and Peace Treaties: 1816 to 1991, p. 217.</ref> Out of these six Axis countries, only Romania reciprocated, declaring war on Haiti on the same day (24 December 1941).<ref>Dr Erik Goldstein, Routledge, 2005, Wars and Peace Treaties: 1816 to 1991, p. 218.</ref> On 27 September 1945,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Haiti became a founding member of the United Nations (the successor to the League of Nations, of which Haiti was also a founding member).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In 1946 Lescot was overthrown by the military, with Dumarsais Estimé later becoming the new president (1946–50).<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Estimé sought to improve the economy and education, and to boost the role of black Haitians; however, as he sought to consolidate his rule he too was overthrown in a coup led by Paul Magloire, who replaced him as president (1950–56).<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Firmly anti-Communist, he was supported by the United States; with greater political stability tourists started to visit Haiti.<ref name="guardiantourism">Template:Cite news</ref> The waterfront area of Port-au-Prince was redeveloped to allow cruise ship passengers to walk to cultural attractions.
Duvalier dynasty (1957–1986)
[edit]
In 1956–57 Haiti underwent severe political turmoil; Magloire was forced to resign and leave the country in 1956 and he was followed by four short-lived presidencies.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> In the September 1957 election François Duvalier was elected President of Haiti. Known as 'Papa Doc' and initially popular, Duvalier remained President until his death in 1971.<ref name="Bradt17">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 17.</ref> He advanced black interests in the public sector, where over time, people of color had predominated as the educated urban elite.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="bryan">Template:Cite book</ref> Not trusting the army, despite his frequent purges of officers deemed disloyal, Duvalier created a private militia known as Tontons Macoutes ("Bogeymen"), which maintained order by terrorizing the populace and political opponents.<ref name="Bradt17"/><ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> In 1964 Duvalier proclaimed himself 'President for Life'; an uprising against his rule that year in Jérémie was violently suppressed, with the ringleaders publicly executed and hundreds of mixed-raced citizens in the town killed.<ref name="Bradt17"/> The bulk of the educated and professional class began leaving the country, and corruption became widespread.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="Bradt17"/> Duvalier sought to create a personality cult, identifying himself with Baron Samedi, one of the loa (or lwa), or spirits, of Haitian Vodou. Despite the well-publicized abuses under his rule, Duvalier's firm anti-Communism earned him the support of the Americans, who furnished the country with aid.<ref name="Bradt17"/><ref name="Štraus">Template:Citation</ref>
In 1971, Duvalier died, and he was succeeded by his son Jean-Claude Duvalier, nicknamed 'Baby Doc', who ruled until 1986.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Bradt17"/> He largely continued his father's policies, though curbed some of the worst excesses in order to court international respectability.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Tourism, which had nosedived in Papa Doc's time, again became a growing industry.<ref name="Clammer, Paul">Template:Cite news</ref> However, as the economy continued to decline, Baby Doc's grip on power began to weaken. Haiti's pig population was slaughtered following an outbreak of swine fever in the late 1970s, causing hardship to rural communities who used them as an investment.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The opposition became more vocal, bolstered by a visit to the country by Pope John Paul II in 1983, who publicly lambasted the president.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Demonstrations occurred in Gonaïves in 1985 which then spread across the country; under pressure from the United States, Duvalier left the country in February 1986.<ref name="Trouillot">Template:Cite book</ref>
In total, roughly 40,000 to 60,000 Haitians are estimated to have been killed during the reign of the Duvaliers.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Through the use of his intimidation tactics and executions, many intellectual Haitians had fled, leaving the country with a massive brain-drain from which it has yet to recover.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Post-Duvalier era (1986–2004)
[edit]
Following Duvalier's departure, army leader General Henri Namphy headed a new National Governing Council.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Elections scheduled for November 1987 were aborted after dozens of inhabitants were shot in the capital by soldiers and Tontons Macoutes.<ref name=Whitney>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Fraudulent elections followed in 1988, in which only 4% of the citizenry voted.<ref name=JC>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> The newly elected president, Leslie Manigat, was then overthrown some months later in the June 1988 Haitian coup d'état.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name=IACHR>Template:Cite report</ref>
Another coup followed in September 1988, after the St. Jean Bosco massacre in which approximately 13 to 50 people attending a mass led by prominent government critic and Catholic priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide were killed.<ref name=IACHR/><ref name=HRW2>Template:Cite book</ref> General Prosper Avril subsequently led a military regime until March 1990.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="Rohter">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Avril transferred power to the army chief of staff, General Hérard Abraham, on 10 March 1990. Abraham gave up power three days later, becoming the only military leader in Haiti during the twentieth century to voluntarily give up power. Abraham later helped to secure the 1990–91 Haitian general election.<ref>Template:Cite report</ref>
In December 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected president in the Haitian general election. However, his ambitious reformist agenda worried the elites, and in September of the following year he was overthrown by the military, led by Raoul Cédras, in the 1991 Haitian coup d'état.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Amidst the continuing turmoil many Haitians attempted to flee the country.<ref name="Bradt17"/><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
In September 1994, the United States negotiated the departure of Haiti's military leaders and the peaceful entry of 20,000 US troops under Operation Uphold Democracy.<ref name="Bradt17"/> This enabled the restoration of the democratically elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president, who returned to Haiti in October to complete his term.<ref name="CCHaiti">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> As part of the deal Aristide had to implement free market reforms in an attempt to improve the Haitian economy, with mixed results.<ref name="Bell">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> In November 1994, Hurricane Gordon brushed Haiti, dumping heavy rain and creating flash flooding that triggered mudslides. Gordon killed an estimated 1,122 people, although some estimates go as high as 2,200.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Elections were held in 1995 which were won by René Préval, gaining 88% of the popular vote, albeit on a low turnout.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Aristide subsequently formed his own party, Fanmi Lavalas, and political deadlock ensued; the November 2000 election returned Aristide to the presidency with 92% of the vote.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The election had been boycotted by the opposition, then organized into the Convergence Démocratique, over a dispute in the May legislative elections. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence between rival political factions and human rights abuses.<ref name="Bradt19">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 19.</ref><ref name="bussandgardner">Template:Cite book</ref> Aristide spent years negotiating with the Convergence Démocratique on new elections, but the Convergence's inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive.Template:Citation needed
In 2004, an anti-Aristide revolt began in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital, and Aristide was forced into exile.<ref name="Bradt19"/><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> The precise nature of the events are disputed; some, including Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, stated that he was the victim of a "new coup d'état or modern kidnapping" by U.S. forces.<ref name="Bradt19"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> These charges were denied by the US government.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Bradt19"/> As political violence and crime continued to grow, a United Nations Stabilisation Mission (MINUSTAH) was brought in to maintain order.<ref name="Bradt20">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 20.</ref> However, MINUSTAH proved controversial, since their periodically heavy-handed approach to maintaining law and order and several instances of abuses, including the alleged sexual abuse of civilians, provoked resentment and distrust among ordinary Haitians.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
Boniface Alexandre assumed interim authority until 2006, when René Préval was re-elected President following elections with 55% voter turnout.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Bradt20"/><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="thompson2006">Template:Cite web</ref>
Post-Aristide era (2004–present)
[edit]Template:See also Amidst the continuing political chaos, a series of natural disasters hit Haiti. In 2004, Tropical Storm Jeanne skimmed the north coast, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of Gonaïves.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2008, Haiti was again struck by tropical storms; Tropical Storm Fay, Hurricane Gustav, Hurricane Hanna and Hurricane Ike all produced heavy winds and rain, resulting in 331 deaths and about 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The state of affairs produced by these storms was intensified by already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
On 12 January 2010, at 4:53pm local time, Haiti was struck by a magnitude-7.0 earthquake. This was the country's most severe earthquake in over 200 years.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The earthquake was reported to have left between 160,000 and 300,000 people dead and up to 1.6 million homeless, making it one of the deadliest natural disasters ever recorded.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref> An estimated 80% of schools, more than half of Haiti's hospitals were destroyed or damaged.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is also one of the deadliest earthquakes ever recorded.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The situation was exacerbated by a subsequent massive cholera outbreak that was triggered when cholera-infected waste from a United Nations peacekeeping station contaminated the country's main river, the Artibonite.<ref name="Bradt20"/><ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2017, it was reported that roughly 10,000 Haitians had died and nearly a million had been made ill. After years of denial, the United Nations apologized in 2016, but Template:As of, they have refused to acknowledge fault, thus avoiding financial responsibility.<ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref>
General elections had been planned for January 2010 but were postponed due to the earthquake.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Elections were held on 28 November 2010 for the senate, the parliament and the first round of the presidential elections. The run-off between Michel Martelly and Mirlande Manigat took place on 20 March 2011, and preliminary results, released on 4 April, named Michel Martelly the winner.<ref name="Bradt21">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 21.</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2011, both former dictator Jean-Claude Duvalier and Jean-Bertrand Aristide returned to Haiti; attempts to try Duvalier for crimes committed under his rule were shelved following his death in 2014.<ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Kushner2011">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Bradt21"/> In 2013, the Haitian government called for European governments to pay reparations for slavery and establish an official commission for the settlement of past wrongdoings.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Meanwhile, after continuing political wrangling with the opposition and allegations of electoral fraud, Martelly agreed to step down in 2016 without a successor in place.<ref name="Bradt21"/><ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref> After numerous postponements, partly owing to the effects of devastating Hurricane Matthew, elections were held in November 2016 with a record low voter turnout of just 17%.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The victor, Jovenel Moïse of the Haitian Tèt Kale Party, was sworn in as president in 2017.<ref>Template:Cite tweet</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Protests began on 7 July 2018, in response to increased fuel prices. Over time these protests evolved into demands for the resignation of president Moïse.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
On 7 July 2021, President Moïse was assassinated in an attack on his private residence, and First Lady Martine Moïse was hospitalized.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Amid the political crisis, the government of Haiti installed Ariel Henry as the acting prime minister on 20 July 2021.<ref name="haitifactbook">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> On 14 August 2021, Haiti suffered another huge earthquake, with many casualties.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The earthquake also damaged Haiti's economic conditions and led to a rise in gang violence which, by September 2021, had escalated to a long-lasting full-blown gang war and other violent crimes within the country.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> As of March 2022, Haiti still had no president, no parliamentary quorum, and a dysfunctional high court due to a lack of judges.<ref name="haitifactbook" /> In 2022, protests against the government and rising fuel prices intensified.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
By the end of 2023, gangs and armed groups controlled an estimated 80% of the capital, Port-au-Prince.<ref name=":2" /> During 2023, gangs killed 4,789 people, kidnapped 2,490 more and displaced an estimated 362,000 from their homes (mostly in Port-au-Prince).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite report</ref> Doctors, lawyers, and other wealthy members of society were kidnapped and held for ransom.<ref name="kidnapping">Template:Cite news</ref> Many victims were killed when ransom demands were not met, leading those with the means to do so to flee the country, further hampering efforts to pull the country out of the crisis.<ref name="kidnapping"/> It is estimated that amidst the crisis up to 20% of qualified medical staff had left Haiti by the end of 2023.<ref name="medical crisis">Template:Cite news</ref>
In March 2024, Ariel Henry was prevented by gangs from returning to Haiti, following a visit to Kenya.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Henry agreed to resign once a transitional government had been formed. As of that month, nearly half of Haiti's population was living under acute food insecurity, according to the World Food Programme.<ref name=":1" /> On 25 April 2024, the Transitional Presidential Council took over the Governance of Haiti and is scheduled to stay in power until 2026.<ref name="sworn in">Template:Cite news</ref> Michel Patrick Boisvert was named interim prime minister.<ref name="sworn in"/> On 3 June 2024, the council swore in Garry Conille as acting prime minister.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> On 10 November 2024, Alix Didier Fils-Aimé replaced Conille as acting prime minister.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Geography
[edit]
Haiti forms the western three-eighths of Hispaniola, the second largest island in the Greater Antilles. At Template:Convert Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behind Cuba and the Dominican Republic, the latter sharing a Template:Convert border with Haiti. The country has a roughly horseshoe shape and because of this it has a disproportionately long coastline, second in length (Template:Convert) behind Cuba in the Greater Antilles.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Haiti is the most mountainous country in the Caribbean, its terrain consists of mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys.<ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti">Template:Cite web</ref> The climate is tropical, with some variation depending on altitude. The highest point is Pic la Selle, at Template:Convert.<ref name="NgCheong-Lum, Roseline 19">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti"/><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
The northern region or Marien Region consists of the Massif du Nord (Northern Massif) and the Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain). The Massif du Nord is an extension of the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> It begins at Haiti's eastern border, north of the Guayamouc River, and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The lowlands of the Plaine du Nord lie along the northern border with the Dominican Republic, between the Massif du Nord and the North Atlantic Ocean.
The central region or Artibonite Region consists of two plains and two sets of mountain ranges. The Plateau Central (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of the Massif du Nord. It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of the Plateau Central are the Montagnes Noires, whose most northwestern part merges with the Massif du Nord. Haiti's most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l'Artibonite, which lies between the Montagnes Noires and the Chaîne des Matheux.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> This region supports the country's longest river, the Riviere l'Artibonite, which begins in the western region of the Dominican Republic and continues for most of its length through central Haiti, where it then empties into the Golfe de la Gonâve.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Also in this valley lies Haiti's second largest lake, Lac de Péligre, formed as a result of the construction of the Péligre Dam in the mid-1950s.<ref name=Wells>Jennifer Wells, "A dam for the people, and A people damned" Template:Webarchive, Toronto Star, 21 November 2010</ref>
The southern region or Xaragua Region consists of the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (the Tiburon Peninsula). The Plaine du Cul-de-Sac is a natural depression that harbors the country's saline lakes, such as Trou Caïman and Haiti's largest lake, Étang Saumatre. The Chaîne de la Selle mountain range – an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco) – extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to the Massif de la Hotte in the west.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
Haiti also includes several offshore islands. The island of Tortuga is located off the coast of northern Haiti. The arrondissement of La Gonâve is located on the island of the same name, in the Golfe de la Gonâve; Haiti's largest island, Gonâve is moderately populated by rural villagers. Île à Vache is located off the southwest coast; also part of Haiti are the Cayemites, located in the Gulf of Gonâve north of Pestel. Navassa Island, located Template:Convert west of Jérémie on the south west peninsula of Haiti,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> is subject to an ongoing territorial dispute with the United States, who currently administer the island.<ref name="USGS">Template:Cite web</ref>
Climate
[edit]
Haiti's climate is tropical with some variation depending on altitude.<ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti"/> Port-au-Prince ranges in January from an average minimum of Template:Convert to an average maximum of Template:Convert; in July, from Template:Convert. The rainfall pattern is varied, with rain heavier in some of the lowlands and the northern and eastern slopes of the mountains. Haiti's dry season occurs from November to January.
Port-au-Prince receives an average annual rainfall of Template:Convert. There are two rainy seasons, April–June and October–November. Haiti is subject to periodic droughts and floods, made more severe by deforestation. Hurricanes are a menace, and the country is also prone to flooding and earthquakes.<ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti"/>
Geology
[edit]
There are blind thrust faults associated with the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system over which Haiti lies.<ref name="USGSHaiti2">Template:Cite web</ref> After the earthquake of 2010, there was no evidence of surface rupture and geologists' findings were based on seismological, geological and ground deformation data.<ref name="Hayes">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The northern boundary of the fault is where the Caribbean tectonic plate shifts eastwards by about Template:Convert per year in relation to the North American Plate. The strike-slip fault system in the region has two branches in Haiti, the Septentrional-Oriente fault in the north and the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault in the south.Template:Citation needed
A 2007 earthquake hazard study, noted that the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone could be at the end of its seismic cycle and concluded that a worst-case forecast would involve a 7.2 Mw earthquake, similar in size to the 1692 Jamaica earthquake.<ref name="DeMets">Template:Cite journal</ref> A study team performing a hazard assessment of the fault system recommended "high priority" historical geologic rupture studies, as the fault was fully locked and had recorded few earthquakes in the preceding 40 years.<ref name="18cgc">Template:Cite web</ref> The magnitude 7.0 2010 Haiti earthquake happened on this fault zone on 12 January 2010.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Haiti also has rare elements such as gold, which can be found at The Mont Organisé gold mine.<ref>ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE USAID/HAITI NORTH PARK POWER PROJECT Template:Webarchive. United States Agency for International Development. ute.gouv.ht. June 2011</ref>
Haiti has no currently active volcanoes. "In the Terre-Neuve Mountains, about 12 kilometers from the Eaux Boynes, small intrusions at least as late as Oligocene and probably of Miocene age are known. No other volcanic activity of as late a date is known near any of the other warm springs."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Environment
[edit]
The soil erosion released from the upper catchments and deforestation have caused periodic and severe flooding, as experienced, for example, on 17 September 2004. Earlier in May that year, floods had killed over 3,000 people on Haiti's southern border with the Dominican Republic.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Haiti's forests covered 60% of the country as recently as 50 years ago, but that has been halved to a current estimate of 30% tree cover. This estimate poses a stark difference from the erroneous figure of 2% which has been oft-cited in discourse concerning the country's environmental condition.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Haiti had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.01/10, ranking it 137th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Scientists at the Columbia University's Center for International Earth Science Information Network and the United Nations Environment Programme are working on the Haiti Regenerative Initiative, an initiative aiming to reduce poverty and natural disaster vulnerability through ecosystem restoration and sustainable resource management.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Biodiversity
[edit]
Haiti is home to four ecoregions: Hispaniolan moist forests, Hispaniolan dry forests, Hispaniolan pine forests, and Greater Antilles mangroves.<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Despite its small size, Haiti's mountainous terrain and resultant multiple climatic zones has resulted in a wide variety of plant life.<ref name="Bradt6">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 6.</ref> Notable tree species include the breadfruit tree, mango tree, acacia, mahogany, coconut palm, royal palm and West Indian cedar.<ref name="Bradt6"/> The forests were formerly much more extensive, but have been subject to severe deforestation.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
Most mammal species are not native, having been brought to the island since colonial times.<ref name="Bradt6"/> However, there are various native bat species, as well as the endemic Hispaniolan hutia and Hispaniolan solenodon.<ref name="Bradt6"/> Whale and dolphin species can also be found off Haiti's coast.
There are over 260 species of birds, 31 endemic to Hispaniola.<ref name="Bradt4">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 4.</ref> Notable endemic species include the Hispaniolan trogon, Hispaniolan parakeet, grey-crowned tanager and the Hispaniolan Amazon.<ref name="Bradt4"/> There are also several raptors, as well as pelicans, ibis, hummingbirds and ducks.
Reptiles are common, with species such as the rhinoceros iguana, Haitian boa, American crocodile and gecko.<ref name="Bradt5">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 5</ref>
Government and politics
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The government of Haiti is a semi-presidential republic, a multiparty system wherein the president of Haiti is head of state and elected directly by popular elections held every five years.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The prime minister of Haiti acts as head of government and is appointed by the president, chosen from the majority party in the National Assembly.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Executive power is exercised by the president and prime minister who together constitute the government.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti, the Senate (Sénat) and the Chamber of Deputies (Chambre des Députés).<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti"/> The government is organized unitarily, thus the central government delegates powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the Constitution of Haiti on 29 March 1987.<ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti"/>
Haitian politics have been contentious: since independence, Haiti has suffered 32 coups.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Haiti is the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successful slave revolution; however, a long history of oppression by dictators such as François Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude Duvalier has markedly affected the republic's governance and society. Since the end of the Duvalier era Haiti has been transitioning to a democratic system.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
Administrative divisions
[edit]Administratively, Haiti is divided into ten departments.<ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti"/> The departments are listed below, with the departmental capital cities in parentheses.
- Nord-Ouest (Port-de-Paix)
- Nord (Cap-Haïtien)
- Nord-Est (Fort-Liberté)
- Artibonite (Gonaïves)
- Centre (Hinche)
- Ouest (Port-au-Prince)
- Grand'Anse (Jérémie)
- Nippes (Miragoâne)
- Sud (Les Cayes)
- Sud-Est (Jacmel)
The departments are further divided into 42 arrondissements, 145 communes and 571 communal sections. These serve as, respectively, second- and third-level administrative divisions.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Foreign relations
[edit]Template:Main Haiti is a member of a wide range of international and regional organizations, such as the United Nations, CARICOM, Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, International Monetary Fund, Organisation of American States, Template:Lang, OPANAL and the World Trade Organization.<ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti"/>
In February 2012, Haiti signaled it would seek to upgrade its observer status to full associate member status of the African Union (AU).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The AU was reported to be planning to upgrade Haiti's status from observer to associate at its June 2013 summit<ref name="haitics">Template:Cite web</ref> but the application had still not been ratified by May 2016.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Military
[edit]Haiti has a strong military history dating to the pre-independence struggle. The Indigenous Army is essential in the construction of the state the management of land and public finances. Up to the 20th century, every Haitian president was an officer in the army. During the US intervention, the army was remodeled as Gendarmerie d'Haiti and later on as Force Armée d'Haiti (FAdH). In the early 1990s, the army was unconstitutionally decommissioned and replaced by the Haitian National Police (PNH). In 2018, Président Jovenel Moise reactivated the FAdH.Template:Citation needed
Haiti's Ministry of Defense is the main body of the armed forces.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The former Haitian Armed Forces were demobilized in 1995; however, efforts to reconstitute it are currently underway.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The current defense force for Haiti is the Haitian National Police, which has a highly trained SWAT team, and works alongside the Haitian Coast Guard. In 2010, the Haitian National Police force numbered 7,000.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
As of 2023, the Haitian army includes one infantry battalion that is in the process of being formed, with 700 personnel.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Law enforcement and crime
[edit]
The legal system is based on a modified version of the Napoleonic Code.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
Haiti has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on the Corruption Perceptions Index.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> According to a 2006 report by the Corruption Perceptions Index, there is a strong correlation between corruption and poverty in Haiti. The republic ranked first of all countries surveyed for levels of perceived domestic corruption.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is estimated that President "Baby Doc" Duvalier, his wife Michele, and their agents stole US $504 million from the treasury between 1971 and 1986.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Similarly, after the Haitian Army folded in 1995, the Haitian National Police (HNP) gained sole power of authority on the Haitian citizens. Many Haitians as well as observers believe that this monopolized power could have given way to a corrupt police force.<ref name="Haiti: Police and Law Enforcement">Template:Cite web</ref> Some media outlets alleged that millions were stolen by former president Jean-Bertrand Aristide.<ref name="American Spectator Vol 1994">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The BBC also described pyramid schemes, in which Haitians lost hundreds of millions in 2002, as the "only real economic initiative" of the Aristide years.<ref name="basketcase">Template:Cite news</ref>
Conversely, according to the 2013 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) report, murder rates (10.2 per 100,000) are far below the regional average (26 per 100,000); less than Template:Sfrac that of Jamaica (39.3 per 100,000) and nearly Template:Sfrac that of the Dominican Republic (22.1 per 100,000), making it among the safer countries in the region.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In large part, this is due to the country's ability to fulfil a pledge by increasing its national police yearly by 50%, a four-year initiative that was started in 2012. In addition to the yearly recruits, the Haitian National Police (HNP) has been using innovative technologies to crack down on crime. A notable bust in recent yearsTemplate:When led to the dismantlement of the largest kidnapping ring in the country with the use of an advanced software program developed by a West Point-trained Haitian official that proved to be so effective that it has led to its foreign advisers to make inquiries.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In 2010, the New York City Police Department (NYPD) sent a team of officers to Haiti to assist in the rebuilding of its police force with special training in investigative techniques, anti-kidnapping strategies and community outreach. It has also helped the HNP set up a police unit in Delmas, a neighborhood of Port-au-Prince.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="USAID">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In 2012 and 2013, 150 HNP officers received specialized training funded by the US government, which also contributed to the infrastructure and communications support by upgrading radio capacity and constructing new police stations from the most violent-prone neighborhoods of Cité Soleil and Grande Ravine in Port-au-Prince to the new northern industrial park at Caracol.<ref name="USAID" />
According to the UN Haiti faces a worsening crisis marked by extreme violence, political instability, and a deepening humanitarian emergency. UN Special Representative Virginia Gamba condemned the use of children by armed gangs, highlighting sexual violence as a weapon of war. The removal of interim Prime Minister Garry Conille has further destabilized governance. Armed groups have targeted schools and hospitals, displacing thousands and leaving 300,000 children without education. The UN calls for urgent humanitarian aid, enhanced security efforts, and political unity to address the crisis, as over 2.7 million people live under gang control.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Haitian penitentiary system
[edit]Port-au-Prince penitentiary is home to half of Haiti's prisoners. The prison has a capacity of 1,200 detainees but Template:As of the penitentiary was obliged to keep 4,359 detainees, a 363% occupancy level.<ref name="auto">Template:Cite news</ref> The inability to receive sufficient funds has caused deadly cases of malnutrition, combined with the tight living conditions, increases the risk of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis.<ref name="auto" />
Haitian law states that once arrested, one must go before a judge within 48 hours; however, this is very rare.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Unless families are able to provide the necessary funds for inmates to appear before a judge, there is a very slim chance the inmate would have a trial, on average, within 10 years.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In confined living spaces for 22–23 hours a day, inmates are not provided with latrines and are forced to defecate into plastic bags. These conditions were considered inhumane by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in 2008.<ref name="prison">Template:Cite news</ref>
On 3 March 2024, armed gangs stormed the main prison in Port-au-Prince and around 3700 inmates escaped, while 12 people were killed.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Economy
[edit]
Haiti's per capita GDP is $1,800 and its GDP is $19.97 billion (2017 estimates).<ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti"/> The country uses the Haitian gourde as its currency. Despite its tourism industry, Haiti is one of the poorest countries in the Americas, with corruption, political instability, poor infrastructure, lack of health care and lack of education cited as the main causes.<ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti"/> Unemployment is high and many Haitians seek to emigrate. Trade declined dramatically after the 2010 earthquake and subsequent outbreak of cholera, with the country's purchasing power parity GDP falling by 8% (from US$12.15 billion to US$11.18 billion).<ref name="CIA_20110303">Template:Cite web</ref> Haiti ranked 145th of 182 countries in the 2010 United Nations Human Development Index, with 57.3% of the population being deprived in at least three of the HDI's poverty measures.<ref name="UNDP_2010">Template:Cite web</ref>
Following the disputed 2000 election and accusations about President Aristide's rule,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> US aid to the Haitian government was cut off between 2001 and 2004.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> After Aristide's departure in 2004, aid was restored and the Brazilian army led a United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti peacekeeping operation. After almost four years of recession, the economy grew by 1.5% in 2005.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In September 2009, Haiti met the conditions set out by the IMF and World Bank's Heavily Indebted Poor Countries program to qualify for cancellation of its external debt.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In 2015, more than 90 percent of the government's budget came from an agreement with Petrocaribe, a Venezuela-led oil alliance.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Foreign aid
[edit]Haiti received more than US$4 billion in aid from 1990 to 2003, including US$1.5 billion from the United States.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The largest donor is the US, followed by Canada and the European Union.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In January 2010, following the earthquake, US President Barack Obama promised US$1.15 billion in assistance.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The European Union pledged more than €400 million (US$616 million).<ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Dead linkTemplate:Cbignore</ref> Neighboring Dominican Republic has also provided extensive humanitarian aid to Haiti, including the funding and construction of a public university,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> human capital, free healthcare services in the border region, and logistical support after the 2010 earthquake.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The United Nations states that US$13.34 billion has been earmarked for post-earthquake reconstruction through 2020, though two years after the 2010 quake, less than half of that amount had actually been released. Template:As of, the US government has allocated US$4 billion, US$3 billion has already been spent, and the rest is dedicated to longer-term projects.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Trade
[edit]According to the 2015 CIA World Factbook, Haiti's main import partners are: Dominican Republic 35%, US 26.8%, Netherlands Antilles 8.7%, China 7% (est. 2013). Haiti's main export partner is the US 83.5% (est. 2013).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Haiti had a trade deficit of US$3 billion in 2011, or 41% of GDP.<ref name="ammart">Template:Cite web</ref>
Energy
[edit]
Haiti relies heavily on an oil alliance with Petrocaribe for much of its energy requirements. In recent years, hydroelectric, solar and wind energy have been explored as possible sustainable energy sources.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
As of 2017, among all the countries in the Americas, Haiti is producing the least energy. Less than a quarter of the country has electric coverage.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Most regions of Haiti that do have energy are powered by generators. These generators are often expensive and produce a lot of pollution. The areas that do get electricity experience power cuts on a daily basis, and some areas are limited to 12 hours of electricity a day. Electricity is provided by a small number of independent companies: Sogener, E-power, and Haytrac.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> There is no national electricity grid.<ref name=":02">Matthew Lucky, Katie Auth, Alexander Ochs, et al., Haiti Sustainable Energy Roadmap: Harnessing Domestic Energy Resources to Build an Affordable, Reliable, and Climate-Compatible Electricity System (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 2014).</ref> The most common source of energy is wood, along with charcoal. About 4 million metric tons of wood products are consumed yearly.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Like charcoal and wood, petroleum is also an important source of energy. Since Haiti cannot produce its own fuel, all fuel is imported. Yearly, around 691,000 tons of oil is imported into the country.<ref name=":02" />
In 2018, a 24-hour electricity project was announced; for this purpose 236 MW needs to installed in Port-au-Prince alone, with an additional 75 MW needed in all other regions. Presently only 27.5% of the population has access to electricity; moreover, the national energy agency l'Électricité d'Haïti (Ed'H) is only able to meet 62% of overall electricity demand.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Personal income
[edit]
Haiti suffers from a shortage of skilled labor, widespread unemployment, and underemployment. Most Haitians in the labor force have informal jobs. Three-quarters of the population lives on US$2 or less per day.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref>
Remittances from Haitians living abroad are the primary source of foreign exchange, equaling one-fifth (20%) of GDP and more than five times the earnings from exports as of 2012.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2004, 80% or more of college graduates from Haiti were living abroad.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Occasionally, families who are unable to care for children may send them to live with a wealthier family as a restavek, or house servant. In return the family are supposed to ensure that the child is educated and provided with food and shelter; however, the system is open to abuse and has proved controversial, with some likening it to child slavery.<ref name="kennedy14">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Dead link</ref>
Real estate
[edit]In rural areas, people often live in wooden huts with corrugated iron roofs. Outhouses are located in back of the huts. In Port-au-Prince, colorful shantytowns surround the central city and go up the mountainsides.<ref name="c151222">Template:Cite news</ref>
The middle and upper classes live in suburbs, or in the central part of the bigger cities in apartments, where there is urban planning. Many of the houses they live in are like miniature fortresses, located behind walls embedded with metal spikes, barbed wire, broken glass, and sometimes all three. The houses have backup generators, because the electrical grid is unreliable. Some even have rooftop reservoirs for water.<ref name="c151222" />
Agriculture
[edit]
Haiti is the world's leading producer of vetiver, a root plant used to make luxury perfumes, essential oils and fragrances, providing for half the world's supply.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Roughly 40–50% of Haitians work in the agricultural sector.<ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti"/><ref name="feedh" /> However, according to soil surveys by the United States Department of Agriculture in the early 1980s, only 11.3 percent of the land was highly suitable for crops. Haiti relies upon imports for half its food needs and 80% of its rice.<ref name="feedh">Template:Cite news</ref>
Haiti exports crops such as mangoes, cacao, coffee, papayas, mahogany nuts, spinach, and watercress.<ref name="ute.gouv.ht">Template:Cite web</ref> Agricultural products constitute 6% of all exports.<ref name="ammart" /> In addition, local agricultural products include maize, beans, cassava, sweet potato, peanuts, pistachios, bananas, millet, pigeon peas, sugarcane, rice, sorghum, and wood.<ref name="ute.gouv.ht" /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Currency
[edit]The Haitian gourde (HTG) is the national currency. The "Haitian dollar" equates to 5 gourdes (goud).Template:Citation needed The vast majority of the business sector and individuals will also accept US dollars, though at the outdoor markets gourdes may be preferred. Locals may refer to the USD as "dollar américain" (dola ameriken) or "dollar US" (pronounced oo-es).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Tourism
[edit]
The tourism market in Haiti is undeveloped and the government is heavily promoting this sector. Haiti has many of the features that attract tourists to other Caribbean destinations, such as white sand beaches, mountainous scenery and a year-round warm climate. However, the country's poor image overseas, at times exaggerated, has hampered the development of this sector.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> In 2014, the country received 1,250,000 tourists (mostly from cruise ships), and the industry generated US$200 million in 2014.Template:Citation needed
Several hotels were opened in 2014, including an upscale Best Western Premier,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> a five-star Royal Oasis hotel by Occidental Hotel and Resorts in Pétion-Ville,<ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref><ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Cbignore</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> a four-star Marriott Hotel in the Turgeau area of Port-au-Prince<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and other new hotel developments in Port-au-Prince, Les Cayes, Cap-Haïtien and Jacmel.Template:Citation needed
Caracol Industrial Park
[edit]On 21 October 2012, Haitian President Michel Martelly, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Bill Clinton, Richard Branson, Ben Stiller and Sean Penn inaugurated the Template:Convert Caracol industrial park, the largest in the Caribbean.<ref name="usatoday.com">Template:Cite news</ref> The project cost US$300 million and included a 10-megawatt power plant, a water-treatment plant and worker housing.<ref name="usatoday.com" /> The plan for the park pre-dated the 2010 earthquake but was fast-tracked as part of US foreign aid strategy to help Haiti recover.<ref name="bostonreview">Template:Cite news</ref> The park was part of a "master plan" for Haiti's North and North-East departments, including the expansion of the Cap-Haïtien International Airport to accommodate large international flights, the construction of an international seaport in Fort-Liberté and the opening of the $50 million Roi Henri Christophe Campus of a new university in Limonade (near Cap-Haïtien) on 12 January 2012.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In 2012, USAID believed the park had the potential to create as many as 65,000 jobs once fully developed.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> South Korean clothing manufacturer Sae-A Trading Co. Ltd, the park's only major tenant, created 5,000 permanent jobs out of the 20,000 it had projected and promised to build 5,000 houses yet only 750 homes had been built near Caracol by 2014.<ref name="bostonreview" />
Ten years later, the park was considered to have failed to uphold its promise to deliver the transformation the Clintons had promised.<ref name="guardiancaracol">Template:Cite news</ref> The US invested tens of millions of dollars into the port project but eventually abandoned it.<ref name="guardiancaracol" /> In order to establish the park, hundreds of families of small farmers had to be removed from the land, approximately 3,500 people overall.<ref name="buzzfeed">Template:Cite news</ref> An audit by the United States Government Accountability Office uncovered that the port project lacked "staff with technical expertise in planning, construction, and oversight of a port" and revealed that USAid hadn't constructed a port anywhere since the 1970s.<ref name="guardiancaracol" /> A USAid feasibility study in 2015 found that "a new port was not viable for a variety of technical, environmental and economic reasons", that the US was short US$72m in funds to cover the majority of the projected costs, and that private companies USAid had wanted to attract "had no interest in supporting the construction of a new port in northern Haiti".<ref name="guardiancaracol" />
Infrastructure
[edit]Transportation
[edit]
Haiti has two main highways that run from one end of the country to the other. The northern highway, Route Nationale No. 1 (National Highway One), originates in Port-au-Prince, winding through the coastal towns of Montrouis and Gonaïves, before reaching its terminus at the northern port Cap-Haïtien. The southern highway, Route Nationale No. 2, links Port-au-Prince with Les Cayes via Léogâne and Petit-Goâve. The state of Haiti's roads are generally poor, many being potholed and becoming impassable in rough weather.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/>
The port at Port-au-Prince, Port international de Port-au-Prince, has more registered shipping than any of the other dozen ports in the country. The port's facilities include cranes, large berths, and warehouses, but these facilities are not in good condition. The port is underused, possibly due to the substantially high port fees. The port of Saint-Marc is currently the preferred port of entry for consumer goods.Template:Citation needed
In the past, Haiti used rail transport; however, the rail infrastructure was poorly maintained when in use and cost of rehabilitation is beyond the means of the Haitian economy. In 2018 the Regional Development Council of the Dominican Republic proposed a "trans-Hispaniola" railway between both countries.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Airports
[edit]
Toussaint Louverture International Airport, located Template:Convert north-northeast of Port-au-Prince proper in the commune of Tabarre, is the primary hub for entry and exit into the country. It has Haiti's main jetway, and along with Cap-Haïtien International Airport handles the vast majority of the country's international flights. Cities such as Jacmel, Jérémie, Les Cayes, and Port-de-Paix have smaller, less accessible airports that are serviced by regional airlines and private aircraft.Template:Citation needed
In 2013, plans for the development of an international airport on Île-à-Vache were introduced by the prime minister.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In May 2024, the airport reopened following three months closure following violence, and is expected to help ease a shortage of medications and basic supplies.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Bus service
[edit]
Tap tap buses are colorfully painted buses or pick-up trucks that serve as shared taxis. The "tap tap" name comes from the sound of passengers tapping on the metal bus body to indicate they want off.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> These vehicles for hire are often privately owned and extensively decorated. They follow fixed routes, do not leave until filled with passengers, and riders can usually disembark at any point. The decorations are a typically Haitian form of art.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Communications
[edit]In Haiti, communications include the radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Haiti ranked last among North American countries in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI)Template:Snd an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Haiti ranked number 143 out of 148 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 141 in 2013.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Water supply and sanitation
[edit]Haiti faces key challenges in the water supply and sanitation sector. Notably, access to public services is very low, their quality is inadequate and public institutions remain very weak despite foreign aid and the government's declared intent to strengthen the sector's institutions. Foreign and Haitian NGOs play an important role in the sector, especially in rural and urban slum areas.Template:Citation needed
Demographics
[edit]
In 2018, Haiti's population was estimated to be about 10,788,000.<ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti"/> In 2006, half of the population was younger than age 20.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 1950, the first formal census gave a total population of 3.1 million.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Haiti averages approximately Template:Convert, with its population concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys.
Millions of Haitian descent live abroad in the United States, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Canada (primarily Montreal), the Bahamas, France, the French Antilles, the Turks and Caicos, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana. There were an estimated 881,500 people of Haitian ancestry in the United States in 2015,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> while in the Dominican Republic there were an estimated 800,000 in 2007.<ref name="pinadep">Template:Cite web</ref> There were 300,000 in Cuba in 2013,<ref>Haiti in Cuba Retrieved 30 December 2013.</ref> 100,000 in Canada in 2006,<ref>Template:Cite web, Statistics Canada (2006).</ref> 80,000 in Metropolitan France (2010),<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and up to 80,000 in the Bahamas (2009).<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In 2018, the life expectancy at birth was 63.66 years.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Racial discrimination
[edit]Under colonial rule, Haitian mulattoes were generally privileged above the black majority, though they possessed fewer rights than the white population. Following the country's independence, they became the nation's social elite. Numerous leaders throughout Haiti's history have been mulattoes. During this time, the enslaved persons and the affranchis were given limited opportunities toward education, income, and occupations, but even after gaining independence, the social structure remains a legacy today as the disparity between the upper and lower classes have not been reformed significantly since the colonial days.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Making up 5% of the nation's population, mulattoes have retained their preeminence, evident in the political, economic, social and cultural hierarchy in Haiti.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> As a result, the elite class today consists of a small group of influential people who are generally light in color.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Religion
[edit]Template:Main Template:Pie chart
The 2018 CIA World Factbook reported that 55% of Haitians were Catholics and 29% were Protestants (Baptist 15.4%, Pentecostal 7.9%, Seventh-day Adventist 3%, Methodist 1.5%, other 0.7%). Other sources put the Protestant population higher, suggesting that it might have formed one-third of the population in 2001.<ref name="ReyStepick2013">Template:Cite book</ref> Like other countries in Latin America, Haiti has witnessed a general Protestant expansion, which is largely Evangelical and Pentecostal in nature.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Haitian Cardinal Chibly Langlois is president of the National Bishops Conference of the Catholic Church.Template:Citation needed
Vodou, a religion with West African roots similar to those of Cuba and Brazil, is formally practiced by 2.1% of the population; however, it is estimated that 50-80% of Haitians incorporate some elements of Vodou belief or practices into their religion, particularly with Catholicism. This reflects Vodou's colonial origins, when enslaved persons were obliged to disguise their traditional loa (lwa), or spirits, as Catholic saints, as part of a process called syncretism. As such, it is difficult to estimate the number of Vodouists in Haiti,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> especially given the legacy of historic persecution and misrepresentation in popular media and culture, as well as modern stigmatization among segments of the growing Protestant population. Nonetheless, Vodou was officially recognized by the Haitian government in 2003.<ref name="CIA World Factbook – Haiti" /> Today, Vodou is experiencing somewhat of a resurgence with younger Haitians, and some are turning to Vodou to treat mental illness.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Reflecting the ubiquity of Vodou culture and beliefs, while many Catholics and Protestants in Haiti denounce Vodou as devil worship, they do not deny the power or existence of its spirits; rather, they are regarded as "evil" and "satanic" adversaries that require intervention through Christian prayer. Protestants view Catholic veneration of saints as idol worship, and some Protestants would often destroy statues and other Catholic paraphernalia.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Minority religions in Haiti include Islam, Bahá'í Faith, Judaism, and Buddhism.<ref name="CIA_20110303" />
Languages
[edit]The two official languages of Haiti are French and Haitian Creole. French is the principal written and administratively authorized language (as well as the main language of the press) and is spoken by 42% of Haitians.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>À ce propos, voir l'essai Prétendus Créolismes : le couteau dans l'igname, Jean-Robert Léonidas, Cidihca, Montréal 1995</ref> It is spoken by all educated Haitians, is the medium of instruction in most schools, and is used in the business sector. It is also used in ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations and church Masses. Haiti is one of two independent nations in the Americas (along with Canada) to designate French as an official language; the other French-speaking areas are all overseas départements, or collectivités, of France, such as French Guiana. Haitian Creole is spoken by nearly all of the Haitian population. French, the base language for Haitian Creole, is popular among the Haitian elite and upper classes. French is also popular in the business sector, and to a far lesser degree, English due to American influence. Spanish is spoken by some Haitians who live along the Haitian-Dominican border.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> English and Spanish may also be spoken by Haitian deportees from the United States and various Latin American countries. Overall, about 90–95% of Haitians only speak Haitian Creole and French fluently, with over half only knowing Creole.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Haitian Creole,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> locally called Kreyòl,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> has recently undergone standardization and is spoken by virtually the entire population.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> One of the French-based creole languages, Haitian Creole has a vocabulary overwhelmingly derived from French, but its grammar resembles that of some West African languages. It also has influences from Taino, Spanish, and Portuguese.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Haitian Creole is related to the other French creoles, and in particular to the Antillean and Louisiana Creole variants.Template:Citation needed
Emigration
[edit]Template:Main There is a large Haitian diaspora community, predominantly based in the US and Canada, France, and the wealthier Caribbean islands.Template:Citation needed
Emigrants from Haiti have constituted a segment of American and Canadian society since before the independence of Haiti from France in 1804.<ref name="HammondCanadaHaiti2010">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="PBSResourceBank">Template:Cite web</ref> Many influential early American settlers and black freemen, including Jean Baptiste Point du Sable and W. E. B. Du Bois, were of Haitian origin.<ref name="Kinzie 1856 190">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="Meehan 1963 445">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="Cohn2009">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Lewis, p. 18.Template:Incomplete short citation</ref>
Education
[edit]
The educational system of Haiti is based on the French system. Higher education, under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> is provided by universities and other public and private institutions.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
More than 80% of primary schools are privately managed by nongovernmental organizations, churches, communities, and for-profit operators, with minimal government oversight.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> According to the 2013 Millennium Development Goals Report, Haiti has steadily boosted net enrollment rate in primary education from 47% in 1993 to 88% in 2011, achieving equal participation of boys and girls in education.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Charity organizations, including Food for the Poor and Haitian Health Foundation, are building schools for children and providing necessary school supplies. According to the 2015 World Factbook, Haiti's literacy rate is 60.7%.Template:Citation needed
Many reformers have advocated the creation of a free, public and universal education system for all primary school-age students in Haiti. The Inter-American Development Bank estimates that the government will need at least US$3 billion to create an adequately funded system.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Upon successful graduation of secondary school, students may continue into higher education. The higher education schools in Haiti include the University of Haiti. There are also medical schools and law schools offered at both the University of Haiti and abroad. Brown University is cooperating with L'Hôpital Saint-Damien in Haiti to coordinate a pediatric health care curriculum.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Health
[edit]Template:As of, 60% of children in Haiti under the age of 10 were vaccinated,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> compared to 93–95% in other countries.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Recently there have been mass vaccination campaigns claiming to vaccinate as many as 91% of a target population against specific diseases (measles and rubella in this case).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Most people have no transportation or access to Haitian hospitals.<ref>Template:Cite journalTemplate:Dead linkTemplate:Cbignore</ref>
The World Health Organization cites diarrheal diseases, HIV/AIDS, meningitis, and respiratory infections as common causes of death in Haiti.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Ninety percent of Haiti's children suffer from waterborne diseases and intestinal parasites.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> HIV infection is found in 1.71% of Haiti's population (est. 2015).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Per a 2017 report, incidence of tuberculosis (TB) in Haiti is the highest in the region with an estimated 200 cases per 100,000 people.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Approximately 30,000 Haitians fall ill with malaria each year.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Roughly 75% of Haitian households lack running water. Unsafe water, along with inadequate housing and unsanitary living conditions, contributes to the high incidence of infectious diseases. There is a chronic shortage of health care personnel and hospitals lack resources, a situation that became readily apparent after the January 2010 earthquake.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The infant mortality rate in Haiti in 2019 was 48.2 deaths per 1,000 live births, compared to 5.6 per 1,000 in the United States.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
After the 2010 earthquake, Partners In Health founded the Hôpital Universitaire de Mirebalais, the largest solar-powered hospital in the world.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Largest cities
[edit]Template:Further Template:Largest cities
Culture
[edit]Haiti has a lasting and unique cultural identity, blending traditional French and African customs, mixed with sizable acquirements from the Spanish and indigenous Taíno cultures.<ref name="Yurnet-Thomas">Template:Cite book</ref>
Art
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Haitian art is distinctive, particularly through its paintings and sculptures.<ref name="Yurnet-Thomas" /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Brilliant colors, naïve perspectives, and sly humor characterize Haitian art. Frequent subjects in Haitian art include big, foods, landscapes, market activities, jungle animals, rituals, dances, and gods. As a result of a deep history and strong African ties, symbols take on great meaning within Haitian society. Many artists cluster in 'schools' of painting, such as the Cap-Haïtien school, which features depictions of daily life in the city, the Jacmel School, which reflects the steep mountains and bays of that coastal town, or the Saint-Soleil School, which is characterized by abstracted human forms and is heavily influenced by Vodou symbolism.Template:Citation needed
In the 1920s the indigéniste movement gained international acclaim, with its expressionist paintings inspired by Haiti's culture and African roots. Notable painters of this movement include Hector Hyppolite, Philomé Oban and Préfète Duffaut.<ref name="Bradt36">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 36.</ref> Some notable artists of more recent times include Edouard Duval-Carrié, Frantz Zéphirin, Leroy Exil, Prosper Pierre Louis and Louisiane Saint Fleurant.<ref name="Bradt36"/> Sculpture is also practiced in Haiti; noted artists in this form include George Liautaud and Serge Jolimeau.<ref name="Bradt37">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 37.</ref>
Music and dance
[edit]Haitian music combines a wide range of influences drawn from the many people who have settled here. It reflects French, African and Spanish elements and others who have inhabited the island of Hispaniola, and minor native Taino influences. Styles of music unique to Haitian culture include music derived from Vodou ceremonial traditions, Rara parading music, Twoubadou ballads, mini-jazz rock bands, Rasin movement, Hip hop kreyòl, méringue,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and compas. Youth attend parties at nightclubs called discos, and attend Bal (ball, as in a formal dance).
Compas (konpa)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> is a complex, ever-changing music that arose from African rhythms and European ballroom dancing, mixed with Haiti's bourgeois culture. It is a refined music, with méringue as its basic rhythm. Haiti had no recorded music until 1937 when Jazz Guignard was recorded non-commercially.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Literature
[edit]Haiti has always been a literary nation that has produced poetry, novels, and plays of international recognition. The French colonial experience established the French language as the venue of culture and prestige, and since then it has dominated the literary circles and the literary production. However, since the 18th century there has been a sustained effort to write in Haitian Creole. The recognition of Creole as an official language has led to an expansion of novels, poems, and plays in Creole.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In 1975, Franketienne was the first to break with the French tradition in fiction with the publication of Dezafi, the first novel written entirely in Haitian Creole.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Other well known Haitian authors include Jean Price-Mars, Jacques Roumain, Jacques Stephen Alexis, Marie Vieux-Chauvet, Pierre Clitandre, René Depestre, Edwidge Danticat, Lyonel Trouillot and Dany Laferrière.
Cinema
[edit]Haiti has a small though growing cinema industry. Well-known directors working primarily in documentary film-making include Raoul Peck and Arnold Antonin. Directors producing fictional films include Patricia Benoît, Wilkenson Bruna and Richard Senecal.
Cuisine
[edit]Haiti is famous for its creole cuisine (related to Cajun cuisine), and its soup joumou.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Architecture
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Monuments include the Sans-Souci Palace and the Citadelle Laferrière, inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1982.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Situated in the Northern Massif du Nord, in the National History Park, the structures date from the early 19th century.<ref name="heritage">Template:Cite web</ref> The buildings were among the first built after Haiti's independence from France. The Citadelle Laferrière, the largest fortress in the Americas, is located in northern Haiti. It was built between 1805 and 1820 and is today referred to by some Haitians as the eighth wonder of the world.<ref name="Reading Eagle">Template:Cite web</ref>
The Institute for the Protection of National Heritage has preserved 33 historical monuments and the historic center of Cap-Haïtien.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Jacmel, a colonial city that was tentatively accepted as a World Heritage Site, was extensively damaged by the 2010 earthquake.<ref name="heritage" />
Museums
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The anchor of Christopher Columbus's largest ship, the Santa María rests in the Musée du Panthéon National Haïtien (MUPANAH), in Port-au-Prince.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Folklore and mythology
[edit]Haiti is known for its folklore traditions.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Much of this is rooted in Haitian Vodou tradition. Belief in zombies is also common.<ref name="Bradt35">Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide - Haiti, p. 35.</ref> Other folkloric creatures include the lougarou.<ref name="Bradt35"/>
National holidays and festivals
[edit]Template:Further The Haitian Carnival has been one of the most popular carnivals in the Caribbean. In 2010, the government decided to stage the event in a different city outside Port-au-Prince every year.<ref name="haitilibre.com">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The National Carnival follows the popular Jacmel Carnival, which takes place a week earlier in February or March.<ref name="haitilibre.com" />
Rara is a festival celebrated before Easter. The festival has generated a style of Carnival music.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Sports
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Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Haiti with hundreds of small clubs competing at the local level. Basketball and baseball are growing in popularity.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="sport">Template:Cite book</ref> Stade Sylvio Cator is the multi-purpose stadium in Port-au-Prince, currently used mostly for association football matches. In 1974, the Haiti national football team were only the second Caribbean team to make the World Cup. The national team won the 2007 Caribbean Nations Cup.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Haiti has participated in the Olympic Games since the year 1900 and won a number of medals. Haitian footballer Joe Gaetjens played for the United States national team in the 1950 FIFA World Cup, scoring the winning goal in the 1–0 upset of England.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]References
[edit]Further reading
[edit]- Arthur, Charles. Haiti in Focus: A Guide to the People, Politics, and Culture. Interlink Publishing Group (2002). Template:ISBN.
- Dayan, Colin. Haiti, History, and the Gods. University of California Press (1998).
- Ferrer, Ada. Freedom's Mirror: Cuba and Haiti in the Age of Revolution. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
- Template:Cite journal
- Girard, Philippe. Haiti: The Tumultuous History (New York: Palgrave, September 2010).
- Hadden, Robert Lee and Steven G. Minson. 2010. The Geology of Haiti: An Annotated Bibliography of Haiti's Geology, Geography and Earth Science Template:Webarchive. US Army Corps of Engineers, Army Geospatial Center. July 2010.
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Kovats-Bernat, J. Christopher. Sleeping Rough in Port-au-Prince: An Ethnography of Street Children and Violence in Haiti. University Press of Florida (2008). Template:ISBN.
- Template:Cite journal
- Prichard, Hesketh. Where Black Rules White: A Journey Across and About Hayti. These are exact reproductions of a book published before 1923: (Nabu Press, Template:ISBN, 5 March 2010); (Wermod and Wermod Publishing Group, Template:ISBN, 15 October 2012).
- Robinson, Randall. An Unbroken Agony: Haiti, From Revolution to the Kidnapping of a President. Basic Civitas (2007). Template:ISBN.
- Wilentz, Amy. The Rainy Season: Haiti Since Duvalier. Simon & Schuster (1990). Template:ISBN.
- Marquis, John. Papa Doc: Portrait of a Haitian Tyrant (LMH Publishing, 2007)
External links
[edit]Template:Sister project links Government
- Template:In lang Prime Minister of Haiti Template:Webarchive
- Template:In lang Haitian Parliament (archived 8 August 2018)
- Template:In lang Ministère de la Santé Publique et de la Population
General information
- Visit Haiti Official Tourism Website
- Template:Cite EB9
- Template:Cite EB1911
- Haiti. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Haiti at UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 7 June 2008)
- A Country Study: Haiti from the US Library of Congress (December 1989).
- Template:Wikiatlas
- Haiti profile from the BBC News.
- Country Profile at New Internationalist.
- Web Site about Safe and Sustainable Water Solutions for Haiti
Template:Haiti topics Template:Navboxes Template:Authority control
- Pages with broken file links
- Haiti
- Countries in the Caribbean
- Former Spanish colonies
- Former French colonies
- French Caribbean
- Island countries
- French-speaking countries and territories
- Greater Antilles
- Least developed countries
- Member states of the Caribbean Community
- Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
- Member states of the United Nations
- Republics
- States and territories established in 1804
- 1490s establishments in the Spanish West Indies
- Small Island Developing States
- 1804 establishments in North America
- 1625 establishments in New France
- 1804 disestablishments in the French colonial empire
- 17th-century disestablishments in the Spanish West Indies
- Countries in North America