Editing Umbrian language (section)

===== Third declension =====
The Umbrian third declension, like the Latin third declension, merged forms from the Proto-Italic consonant stem and i-stem declensions. In Proto-Italic, the nominative singular of these declensions was {{Lang|itc|-s}} and {{Lang|itc|-is}} respectively. During the transition to Umbrian, the /i/ vowel was syncopated, producing a nominative singular ending {{Lang|itc|-s}} for all third declension forms.{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=124}} However, the nominative plural endings vary depending upon whether the term was inherited from the consonant or i-stem terms. I-stem terms likely inherited the ending {{Lang|xum|-ēs}}, although the Oscan nominative plural formation "{{Lang|osc|aídilis}}" Indicates that at least the Oscan language, and possibly the Osco-Umbrian languages at large, may have evolved the ending {{Lang|xum|-īs}} according to the model of the first and second declension forms {{Lang|xum|-ās}} and {{Lang|itc|-ōs}}. Consonant stems syncopated the short vowel ending {{Lang|xum|-es}} in Proto-Italic, resulting in a more unique evolution. The term {{Lang|xum|frater}}, which is used in the nominative plural, presumably evolved from the from {{Lang|itc|*frāteres}}, which contracted to {{Lang|itc|*frāters}} before arriving at {{Lang|xum|frater}}. This term is also misspelt as {{Lang|xum|frateer}} in one inscription, which may provide evidence of [[compensatory lengthening]].{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=126}}

In the accusative singular, Umbrian i-stem forms inherited the Proto-Italic ending {{Lang|itc|-im}}, which was often represented by the graphemes  {{Lang|xum|-e}} or {{Lang|xum|-em}}, although the spelling {{Lang|itc|-im}} occurs rarely. For consonant stems, the Proto-Italic ending {{Lang|itc|-əm}} was replaced by {{Lang|xum|-om}}, which was borrowed from the second declension forms.{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=125}} The accusative plural ending, in the i-stem, shifted the final {{Lang|xum|-ns}} in Proto-Italic {{Lang|xum|-ins}} to {{Lang|xum|-f}}, resulting in the form {{Lang|xum|-if}}. However, the {{Lang|xum|-f}} was often omitted in writing and the {{Lang|xum|-i}} could be rendered as {{Lang|xum|-e}}, sometimes including {{Lang|xum|-ei-}}; thus, forms such as "{{Lang|xum|'''tref'''}}," "{{Lang|xum|'''tre'''}}," and "{{Lang|xum|treif}}" appear for "{{Lang|xum|'''trif'''}}."{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=126}} Consonant stems followed a more distinct evolution; although they contracted the {{Lang|xum|-ns}} in Proto-Italic {{Lang|xum|-ens}} to {{Lang|xum|-f}}, they dropped the {{Lang|xum|-e}}, leading to the form {{Lang|xum|-f}} instead of the expected form {{Lang|xum|-ēf}}. Such an evolution could theoretically have been explained through the syncopation of a short {{Lang|xum|-e}},{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=127}} however the contraction of {{Lang|xum|-ns}} to {{Lang|xum|-f}} appears to have been accompanied by the lengthening of the preceding vowel.{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=47}} It is possible, although disputed, that the original Proto-Italic forms contained long vowels, allowing for an explanation of the unusual form through regular syncopation. Buck proposes that, in the absence of the aforementioned explanation, the form may have emerged due to the influence of the accusative plural forms of the other declensions, which were typically preceded by the same phonemes as the {{Lang|itc|-s}} of the nominative plural.{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=127}} 

The i-stem forms developed the open vowel {{Lang|xum|-ē}} in the dative singular, which was represented by the graphemes {{Lang|xum|-'''e'''}}, {{Lang|xum|-e}}, and—occasionally—{{Lang|xum|-i}}, although this form is of exceptional rarity.{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=44}} I-stem forms also adopted an ablative singular form {{Lang|xum|-īd}}, which was represented orthographically by either {{Lang|xum|-'''i'''}}, {{Lang|xum|-i}}, {{Lang|xum|-ei}}, and—rarely—{{Lang|xum|-e}}. In consonant stems, the ablative singular ending was {{Lang|xum|-e}}.{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=125}} Umbrian consonant stem ablative singular forms are near-universally rendered as "{{Lang|xum|-e}}" or "{{Lang|xum|-'''e'''}}," with the exception of the term "{{Lang|xum|persi}}" or " "{{Lang|xum|'''peři'''}}" ("foot"), which is exclusively marked by the ending {{Lang|xum|-i}}. The linguist Reuben J. Pitts regards this as a "lexical aberration," which may have resulted from influence by the i-stem forms.{{Sfn|Pitts|2020|p=9}} Pitts suggests that the restricted orthographical representations of the consonant-stem ablative singular indicates that it likely was an [[Mid-open vowel|open-mid vowel]], as the [[close-mid vowel]] forms were often represented by the graphemes  {{Lang|xum|-'''e'''}}, {{Lang|xum|-e}}, {{Lang|xum|-i}}, {{Lang|xum|-'''i'''}}, and {{Lang|xum|-ei}}. Moreover, Pitts argues that the ending was likely a [[Vowel length|short vowel]] as an—according to Pitts—a long vowel likely would have been raised to a close-mid vowel in Umbrian.{{Sfn|Pitts|2020|p=10}} The dative-ablative plural form, in i-stems, evolved from the Proto-Italic from {{Lang|itc|*-iβos}} into {{Lang|itc|*-ifos}}, which became {{Lang|xum|-ifs}} through syncopation. The ending {{Lang|xum|-ifs}} is attested in one Oscan term, "{{Lang|osc|'''luisfaris'''}}," however all other Oscan and Umbrian forms showcases that the {{Lang|xum|-fs}} was assimilated, leading to the {{Lang|xum|-is}} ending found in Umbrian terms such as "{{Lang|xum|'''avis'''}}." However, it was alternatively written with the {{Lang|xum|-i}} substituted for {{Lang|xum|-e}}; thus, Umbrian forms such as "{{Lang|xum|'''aves'''}}." Consonant stems inherited their dative and ablative plural forms from the Proto-Italic u-stem nouns, resulting in forms such as "{{Lang|xum|fratrus}}" and "{{Lang|xum|'''karnus'''}}."{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=126}} Both i-stem and consonant stem third declension forms inherited the Proto-Italic i-stem genitive singular form {{Lang|itc|*-eis}}, which was orthographically represented by the forms {{Lang|xum|-'''es'''}} and {{Lang|xum|-er}}.{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=125}} The third-declension locative singular ending is attested in terms such as "{{Lang|xum|scalsie}}" and "{{Lang|xum|ocre}}," both of which were marked graphically by the ending {{Lang|xum|-e}}, although considers it likely that consonant-stem forms had inherited the Proto-Italic ending {{Lang|xum|*-i}} while i-stem forms had inherited the Proto-Italic ending {{Lang|xum|*-ei}}.{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=126}}

Therre are also attestations of neuter forms for the third declension. Terms such as "{{Lang|xum|sacre}}" suggest that the Umbrian neuter nominative and accusative singular for third declension i-stem terms, like Latin, was marked by the ending {{Lang|xum|-e}}, although other terms such as "{{Lang|xum|sehemeniar}}" indicate that, also like Latin, the final {{Lang|xum|-e}} could be omitted. There are a few examples of consonant stem third declension neuter nouns, such as "{{Lang|xum|pir}}," "{{Lang|xum|nome}}", and "{{Lang|xum|'''tupak'''}}." Consonant stem neuter nouns inherited the {{Lang|xum|*-ā}} ending from Proto-Italic for the nominative and accusative plural, while i-stem nouns evolved the ending {{Lang|xum|-iā}} from Proto-Italic. The final {{Lang|xum|-ā}} would change regularly according to the standard phonological and graphical rules in Umbrian governing the form of the final {{Lang|xum|-ā}} vowel.{{Sfn|Buck|1904|p=127}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="3" |Third declension Consonant Stem
! colspan="2" |Third Declension i-Stem
|-
!Case
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
!Nominative
|{{Lang|itc|-s}}
|
|{{Lang|itc|-s}}
|{{Lang|xum|-ēs}}
|-
!Accusative
|{{Lang|xum|-om}}
|{{Lang|xum|-f}}
|{{Lang|xum|-e}}, {{Lang|xum|-em}}
|{{Lang|xum|-if}}, {{Lang|xum|-ef}}, {{Lang|xum|-eif}}, {{Lang|xum|-e}}
|-
!Dative
|
|{{Lang|xum|-us}}
|{{Lang|xum|-'''e'''}}, {{Lang|xum|-e}}, {{Lang|xum|-i}}
|{{Lang|xum|-is}}
|-
!Genitive
|{{Lang|xum|-'''es'''}}, {{Lang|xum|-er}}
|
|{{Lang|xum|-'''es'''}}, {{Lang|xum|-er}}
|
|-
!Ablative
|{{Lang|xum|-e}}, {{Lang|xum|-'''e'''}}
|{{Lang|xum|-us}}
|{{Lang|xum|-'''i'''}}, {{Lang|xum|-i}}, {{Lang|xum|-ei}}, {{Lang|xum|-e}}
|{{Lang|xum|-is}}
|-
!Locative
|{{Lang|xum|-e}}
|{{Lang|xum|-us}}
|{{Lang|xum|-e}}
|{{Lang|xum|-is}}
|}