Editing Latin phonology and orthography (section)

==Syllables and stress==
===Nature of the accent===
Although some French and Italian scholars believe that the classical Latin accent was purely a pitch accent, which had no effect on the placing of words in a line of poetry, the view of most scholars is that the accent was a stress accent. One argument for this is that unlike most languages with tonal accents, there are no minimal pairs like ancient Greek {{lang|grc|φῶς}} (falling accent) "light" vs. {{lang|grc|φώς}} (rising accent) "man" where a change of accent on the same syllable changes the meaning.<ref>W. C. de Melo (2007), [https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2007/2007.12.21 Review: Cesare Questa, La metrica di Plauto e Terenzio]. Bryn Mawr Classical Review.</ref> Among other arguments are the loss of vowels before or after the accent in words such as {{lang|la|discip(u)līna}} and {{lang|la|sinist(e)ra}}; and the shortening of post or pre-accentual syllables in Plautus and Terence by [[brevis brevians]], for example, scansions such as {{lang|la|senex}} and {{lang|la|voluptātem}} with the second syllable short.<ref>W. Sidney Allen (1978), ''Vox Latina'', 2nd edition, pp. 85–86.</ref>

===Old Latin stress===
In [[Old Latin]], as in [[Proto-Italic]], stress normally fell on the first syllable of a word.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fortson|2004|p=254}}</ref> During this period, the word-initial stress triggered changes in the vowels of non-initial syllables, the effects of which are still visible in classical Latin. Compare for example:
* {{lang|la|f'''a'''ciō}} 'I do/make', {{lang|la|f'''a'''ctus}} 'made'; pronounced {{IPA|/ˈfa.ki.oː/}} and {{IPA|/ˈfak.tus/}} in later Old Latin and Classical Latin.
* {{lang|la|aff'''i'''ciō}} 'I affect', {{lang|la|aff'''e'''ctus}} 'affected'; pronounced {{IPA|/ˈaf.fi.ki.oː/}} and {{IPA|/ˈaf.fek.tus/}} in Old Latin following vowel reduction, {{IPA|/af.ˈfi.ki.oː/}} and {{IPA|/af.ˈfek.tus/}} in Classical Latin.
In the earliest Latin writings, the original unreduced vowels are still visible. Study of this vowel reduction, as well as syncopation (dropping of short unaccented syllables) in Greek loan words, indicates that the stress remained word-initial until around the time of [[Plautus]], in the 3rd century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Sturtevant|1920|pp=207–218}}</ref> The placement of the stress then shifted to become the pattern found in classical Latin.

===Classical Latin syllables and stress===
{{See also|Dreimorengesetz{{!}}''Dreimorengesetz''}}
In Classical Latin, stress changed. It moved from the first syllable to one of the last three syllables, called the antepenult, the penult, and the ultima (short for {{lang|la|antepaenultima}} 'before almost last', {{lang|la|paenultima}} 'almost last', and {{lang|la|ultima syllaba}} 'last syllable'). Its position is determined by the [[syllable weight]] of the penult. If the penult is heavy, it is accented; if the penult is light and there are more than two syllables, the antepenult is accented.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=83}}</ref> In a few words originally accented on the penult, accent is on the ultima because the two last syllables have been contracted, or the last syllable has been lost.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=87}}</ref>

====Syllable====
To determine stress, syllable weight of the penult must be determined. To determine syllable weight, words must be broken up into syllables.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|loc=§11}}<!-- syllable quantity --></ref> In the following examples, syllable structure is represented using these symbols: C (a consonant), K (a stop), R (a liquid), and V (a short vowel), VV (a long vowel or diphthong).

====Nucleus====
Every short vowel, long vowel, or diphthong belongs to a single syllable. This vowel forms the syllable nucleus. Thus {{lang|la|magistrārum}} has four syllables, one for every vowel (a i ā u: V V VV V), {{lang|la|aereus}} has three (ae e u: VV V V), {{lang|la|tuō}} has two (u ō: V VV), and {{lang|la|cui}} has one (ui: VV).<ref name="Greenough syllable">{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|loc=§7<!-- one vowel or diphthong to a syllable; one consonant as onset -->}}</ref>

====Onset and coda====
A consonant before a vowel or a consonant cluster at the beginning of a word is placed in the same syllable as the following vowel. This consonant or consonant cluster forms the syllable onset.<ref name="Greenough syllable" />
*{{lang|la|fēminae}} {{IPA|/feː.mi.nae̯/}} (CVV.CV.CVV)
*{{lang|la|uidēre}} {{IPA|/wi.deː.re/}} (CV.CVV.CV)
*{{lang|la|puerō}} {{IPA|/pu.e.roː/}} (CV.V.CVV)
*{{lang|la|beātae}} {{IPA|/be.aː.tae̯/}} (CV.VV.CVV)
*{{lang|la|grauiter}} {{IPA|/ɡra.wi.ter/}} (CCV.CV.CVC)
*{{lang|la|strātum}} {{IPA|/straː.tum/}} (CCCVV.CVC)

After this, if there is an additional consonant inside the word, it is placed at the end of the syllable. This consonant is the syllable coda. Thus if a consonant cluster of two consonants occurs between vowels, they are broken up between syllables: one goes with the syllable before, the other with the syllable after.<ref name="Allen syllable">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=89–92}}</ref>
*{{lang|la|puella}} {{IPA|/pu.el.la/}} (CV.VC.CV)
*{{lang|la|supersum}} {{IPA|/su.per.sum/}} (CV.CVC.CVC)
*{{lang|la|coāctus}} {{IPA|/ko.aːk.tus/}} (CV.VVC.CVC)
*{{lang|la|intellēxit}} {{IPA|/in.tel.leːk.sit/}} (VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC)

There are two exceptions. A consonant cluster of a stop {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/c/}}, {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, or {{IPA|/g/}} followed by a liquid {{IPA|/l/}} or {{IPA|/r/}} between vowels usually goes to the syllable after it, although it is also sometimes broken up like other consonant clusters.<ref name="Allen syllable" />
*{{lang|la|uolucris}} {{IPA|/wo.lu.kris/}} or {{IPA|/wo.luk.ris/}} (CV.CV.KRVC or CV.CVK.RVC)

====Heavy and light syllables====
As shown in the examples above, Latin syllables have a variety of possible structures. Here are some of them. The first four examples are light syllables, and the last six are heavy. All syllables have at least one V (vowel). A syllable is heavy if it has another V or C (or both) after the first V. In the table below, the extra V or VC is bolded, indicating that it makes the syllable heavy.

{|
| || || || V || ||
|-
| || || C || V || ||
|-
| || C || C || V || ||
|-
| C || C || C || V || ||
|-
| || || C || V
! V !!
|-
| || || C || V
! C !!
|-
| || || C || V
! V !! C
|-
| || || || V
! V !!
|-
| || || || V
! C !!
|-
| || || || V
! V !! C
|}

Thus, a syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or diphthong, a short vowel and a consonant, a long vowel and a consonant, or a diphthong and a consonant. Syllables ending in a diphthong and consonant are rare in Classical Latin.

The syllable onset has no relationship to syllable weight; both heavy and light syllables can have no onset or an onset of one, two, or three consonants.

In Latin a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a long vowel or diphthong is traditionally called {{lang|la|syllaba nātūrā longa}} ({{Translation|syllable long by nature|literal=yes}}), and a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a consonant is called {{lang|la|positiōne longa}} ({{Translation|long by position|literal=yes}}). These terms are translations of Greek {{lang|grc|συλλαβὴ μακρά φύσει}} ({{Transliteration|grc|syllabḕ makrá phýsei}}) and {{lang|grc|μακρὰ θέσει}} ({{Transliteration|grc|makrà thései}}), respectively; therefore {{lang|la|positiōne}} should not be mistaken for implying a syllable "is long because of its position/place in a word" but rather "is treated as 'long' by convention".  This article uses the words ''heavy'' and ''light'' for syllables, and ''long'' and ''short'' for vowels since the two are not the same.<ref name="Allen syllable" />

====Stress rule====
In a word of three or more syllables, the weight of the penult determines where the accent is placed. If the penult is light, accent is placed on the antepenult; if it is heavy, accent is placed on the penult.<ref name="Allen syllable" /> Below, stress is marked by placing the stress mark {{angbr IPA|ˈ}} before the stressed syllable.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Words with stress on antepenult
|-
| {{lang|la|volucris}}|| {{lang|la|fēminae}} || {{lang|la|puerō}}
|-
| {{IPA|/ˈwo.lu.kris/}} || {{IPA|/ˈfeː.mi.nae̯/}} || {{IPA|/ˈpu.e.roː/}}
|-
| CV.CV.CCVC || CVV.CV.CVV || CV.V.CVV
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Words with stress on penult
| {{lang|la|volucris}}|| {{lang|la|vidēre}} || {{lang|la|intellēxit}} || {{lang|la|beātae}} || {{lang|la|puella}} || {{lang|la|coāctus}}
|-
| CV.CVC.CVC || CV.CVV.CV || VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC || CV.VV.CVV || CV.VC.CV || CV.VVC.CVC
|-
| {{IPA|/woˈluk.ris/}} || {{IPA|/wiˈdeː.re/}} || {{IPA|/in.telˈleːk.sit/}} || {{IPA|/beˈaː.tae̯/}} || {{IPA|/puˈel.la/}} || {{IPA|/koˈaːk.tus/}}
|}

====Iambic shortening====
{{main|Brevis brevians}}
'''Iambic shortening''' or {{lang|la|brevis brevians}} is vowel shortening that occurs in words of the type ''light–heavy'', where the light syllable is stressed. By this sound change, words like {{lang|la|egō}}, {{lang|la|modō}}, {{lang|la|benē}}, {{lang|la|amā}} with long final vowel change to {{lang|la|ego}}, {{lang|la|modo}}, {{lang|la|bene}}, {{lang|la|ama}} with short final vowel.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=86}}</ref>

The term also refers to shortening of closed syllables following a short syllable, for example {{lang|la|quid ĕst, volŭptātem, apŭd iudicem}} and so on. This type of shortening is found in early Latin, for example in the comedies of [[Plautus]] and [[Terence]], but not in poetry of the classical period.