Editing Latin phonology and orthography (section)

===Table of orthography===

The letters {{angbr|b}}, {{angbr|d}}, {{angbr|f}}, {{angbr|h}}, {{angbr|m}}, {{angbr|n}} are always pronounced as in English {{IPA|[b]}}, {{IPA|[d]}}, {{IPA|[f]}}, {{IPA|[h]}}, {{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}} respectively, and they do not usually cause any difficulties. The exceptions are mentioned below:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Pronunciation of Latin consonants
|-
! Latin<br />grapheme !! Latin<br />phoneme !! English approximation
|-
! {{angbr|C}}, {{angbr|K}}
! {{IPA|[k]}}
| Always hard as ''k'' in ''sky'', never [[hard and soft C|soft]] as in ''cellar'', ''cello'', or ''social''. {{angbr|k}} is a letter coming from Greek, but seldom used and generally replaced by {{angbr|c}}.
|-
! {{angbr|CH}}
! {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| As ''ch'' in ''chemistry'', and aspirated; never as in ''challenge'' or ''change'' and also never as in ''Bach'' or ''chutzpah.'' Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|χ}}}}, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
|-
! {{angbr|G}}
! {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
| Always hard as ''g'' in ''good'', never [[hard and soft G|soft]] as ''g'' in ''gem''.
|-
! {{angbr|GN}}
! {{IPA|[ɡn ~ ŋn]}}
| As ''ngn'' in ''wingnut''.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|I}}
! {{IPA|[j]}}
| Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as ''y'' in ''yard'', never as ''j'' in ''just''.
|-
! {{IPA|[jː]}}
| Geminated between vowels, as ''y y'' in ''toy yacht''.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|L}}
! {{IPA|[l]}}
| When doubled {{angbr|ll}} or before {{angbr|i}}, as clear ''l'' in ''link'' (known as {{lang|la|L exilis}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Sihler|1995|p=174}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=33–34}}</ref>
|-
! {{IPA|[ɫ]}}
| In all other positions,{{dubious|date=October 2023}}{{citation needed|date=October 2023}} as dark ''l'' in ''bowl'' (known as {{lang|la|L pinguis}}).
|-
! {{angbr|P}}
! {{IPA|[p]}}
| As ''p'' in ''spy'', unaspirated.
|-
! {{angbr|PH}}
! {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
| As ''p'' in ''party'', always aspirated; never as in ''photo'' when being pronounced in English. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|φ}}}}, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
|-
! {{angbr|QV}}
! {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| Similar to ''qu'' in ''quick'', never as ''qu'' in ''antique''. Before {{angbr|i}}, like ''cu'' in French {{lang|fr|cuir}}. 
|-
! {{angbr|QVV}}
! {{IPA|[kʷɔ ~ kʷu ~ ku]}}
| There were two trends: the educated and popular pronunciation. Within educated circles it was pronounced {{IPA|[kʷɔ]}}, evoking the [[Old Latin]] pronunciation ({{lang|la|equos}}, {{lang|la|sequontur}}); meanwhile, within popular circles it was pronounced {{IPA|[ku]}} ({{lang|la|ecus}}, {{lang|la|secuntur}}).<ref name="Traina & Perini 1998">{{Citation|last1=Traina |first1=Alfonso |last2= Perini |first2=Giorgio Bernardi |title= Propedeutica al latino universitario |year=1998 |pages=62–63 |ref=TrainaPropedeutica |language=it}}</ref><ref name="Traina 2002">{{cite book|author-link1=Alfonso Traina|first=Alfonso|last=Traina|title=L'alfabeto e la pronunzia del latino|publisher=Pàtron|location=Bologna|year=2002|edition=5|pages=44 and 59–60}}. Traina cites various sources: Quintilianus (I, 7, 26) certifies that his teachers had the group 'vo' written in its epoch by now writing 'vu'; Velio Longo (VII 58 K.) attests the spelling 'quu' pronounced {{IPA|[ku]}}; various inscriptions from different periods even show the spelling 'cu' for 'quu'.</ref>
|-
! {{angbr|R}}
! {{IPA|[r]}}
| As ''r'' in Italian and several Romance languages.
|-
! {{angbr|RH}}
! {{IPA|[r̥]}}
| As ''r'' in Italian and several Romance languages, but voiceless; e.g. {{lang|la|diarrhoea}} {{angbr|{{lang|grc|διάῤῥοια}}}}. (see [[Voiceless alveolar trill]]). Transcription of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ῥ}}}}, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
|-
! {{angbr|S}}
! {{IPA|[s]}}
| As ''s'' in ''say'', never as ''s'' in ''rise'' or ''measure''.
|-
! {{angbr|T}}
! {{IPA|[t]}}
| As ''t'' in ''stay''
|-
! {{angbr|TH}}
! {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| As ''th'' in ''thyme'', and aspirated; never as in ''thing'', or ''that.'' Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|θ}}}}, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
|-
! {{angbr|V}}
! {{IPA|[w]}}
| Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after {{angbr|g}} and {{angbr|s}}, as ''w'' in ''wine'', never as ''v'' in ''vine''.
|-
! {{angbr|VV}}
! {{IPA|[wɔ ~ wu]}}
| As ''one'' is pronounced in some English accents, but without the nasal sound: {{lang|la|parvus}} {{IPA|[ˈpɐr.wɔs]}}, {{lang|la|vivunt}} {{IPA|[ˈwiː.wɔnt]}}. The spelling {{angbr|vu}} is post-classical, made in order to become regular in spelling.<ref name="Traina & Perini 1998" /><ref name="Traina 2002"/>
|-
! {{angbr|X}}
! {{IPA|[ks]}}
| A letter representing {{angbr|c}} + {{angbr|s}}, as well as {{angbr|g}} + {{angbr|s}}: as ''x'' in English ''axe''.
|-
! {{angbr|Z}}
! {{IPA|[d͡z ~ zː]}}
| As in ''zoom'', never as in ''pizza'' (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ζ}}}}.
|}
{| class=wikitable
|+ Pronunciation of Latin vowels
! Latin<br />grapheme
! Latin<br />phone
! English approximation
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|A}}
! {{IPA|[ä]}}
| Similar to ''u'' in ''cut'' when short. Transliteration of Greek short {{angbr|{{lang|grc|α}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[äː]}}
| Similar to ''a'' in ''father'' when long. Transliteration of Greek long {{angbr|{{lang|grc|α}}}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|E}}
! {{IPA|[ɛ]}} 
| As ''e'' in ''pet'' when short. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ε}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[eː]}}
| Similar to ''ey'' in ''they'' when long. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|η}}}}, and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ει}}}} in some cases.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|I}}
! {{IPA|[ɪ]}}
| As ''i'' in ''sit'' when short. Transliteration of short Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ι}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[iː]}}
| Similar to ''i'' in ''machine'' when long. Transliteration of Greek long {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ι}}}}, and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ει}}}} in some cases.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|O}}
! {{IPA|[ɔ]}}
| As ''o'' in ''sort'' when short. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ο}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[oː]}}
| Similar to ''o'' in ''holy'' when long. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ω}}}}, and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ου}}}} in some cases.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|V}}
! {{IPA|[ʊ]}}
| Similar to ''u'' in ''put'' when short.
|-
! {{IPA|[uː]}}
| Similar to ''u'' in ''true'' when long. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ου}}}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|Y}}
! {{IPA|[ʏ]}}
| As in German ''Stück'' when short (or as short ''u'' or ''i'') (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek short {{angbr|{{lang|grc|υ}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[yː]}}
| As in German ''früh'' when long (or as long ''u'' or ''i'') (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek long {{angbr|{{lang|grc|υ}}}}.
|}
{| class=wikitable
|+ Pronunciation of Latin diphthongs
! Latin<br />grapheme
! Latin<br />phone
! English approximation
|-
! {{angbr|AE}}
! {{IPA|[ae̯]}}
| As in ''aisle''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|αι}}}}.
|-
! {{angbr|AV}}
! {{IPA|[au̯]}} 
| As in ''out''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|αυ}}}}.
|-
! {{angbr|EI}}
! {{IPA|[ei̯]}}
| As in ''ey'' in ''they''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ει}}}} in some cases.
|-
! {{angbr|EV}}
! {{IPA|[eu̯]}}
| As in Portuguese {{lang|pt|eu}}, similar to the British pronunciation of ''ow'' in ''low''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ευ}}}}.
|-
! {{angbr|OE}}
! {{IPA|[oe̯]}}
| As in ''boy''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|οι}}}}.
|-
! {{angbr|VI}}
! {{IPA|[ui̯]}}
| As in Spanish {{lang|es|muy}}, similar to ''hooey''.
|-
! {{angbr|YI}}
! {{IPA|[ʏɪ̯]}}
| Transliteration of the Greek diphthong {{angbr|{{lang|grc|υι}}}}.
|}