Editing Indonesian language (section)

== Phonology ==
{{main|Malay phonology}}

=== Vowels ===
Indonesian has six vowel phonemes as shown in the table below.<ref name="SodOlson2008" /><ref>{{cite book |author1=Anton M. Moeliono |author2=Hans Lapoliwa |author3=Hasan Alwi |author4=Sry Satrya Tjatur Wisnu Sasangka |author5=Sugiyono |title=Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia |year=2017 |location=Jakarta |publisher=Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa |edition=4th}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ caption | '''Indonesian vowel phonemes'''
|-
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| /{{IPA link|i}}/
|
| /{{IPA link|u}}/
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-Mid]]
| /{{IPA link|e}}/
| /{{IPA link|ə}}/
| /{{IPA link|o}}/
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| /{{IPA link|ä|a}}/
|
|}

In standard Indonesian orthography, the [[Latin alphabet]] is used, and five vowels are distinguished: ''a, i, u, e, o''. In materials for learners, the mid-front vowel /e/ is sometimes represented with a diacritic as ⟨é⟩ to distinguish it from the mid-central vowel ⟨ê⟩ /ə/. Since 2015, the auxiliary graphemes ⟨é⟩ and ⟨è⟩ are used respectively for phonetic [{{IPA link|e}}] and [{{IPA link|ɛ}}] in Indonesian, while Standard Malay has rendered both of them as ⟨é⟩.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karyati |first=Zetty |date=2016-12-05 |title=Antara EYD dan PUEBI: Suatu Analisis Komparatif |url=http://journal.lppmunindra.ac.id/index.php/SAP/article/view/1024 |journal=SAP (Susunan Artikel Pendidikan) |volume=1 |issue=2 |doi=10.30998/sap.v1i2.1024 |issn=2549-2845|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The phonetic realization of the mid vowels /{{IPA|e}}/ and /{{IPA|o}}/ ranges from close-mid ({{IPA|[e]}}/{{IPA|[o]}}) to open-mid ({{IPA|[ɛ]}}/{{IPA|[ɔ]}}) [[allophone]]s. Some analyses set up a system which treats the open-mid vowels {{IPAslink|ɛ}} and {{IPAslink|ɔ}} as distinct phonemes.<ref>Yunus Maris, M. (1980). ''The Indonesian Sound System''. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd, page 2.</ref> Poedjosoedarmo argued the split of the front mid vowels in Indonesian is due to [[Javanese language|Javanese]] influence which exhibits a difference between ⟨i⟩ [{{IPA link|i}}], ⟨é⟩ [{{IPA link|e}}] and è [{{IPA link|ɛ}}]. Another example of Javanese influence in Indonesian is the split of back mid vowels into two allophones of [{{IPA link|o}}] and [{{IPA link|ɔ}}]. These splits (and loanwords) increase instances of [[Doublet (linguistics)|doublets]] in Indonesian, such as ⟨''satai''⟩ and ⟨''saté''⟩. Javanese words adopted into Indonesian have greatly increased the frequency of Indonesian ⟨é⟩ and ⟨o⟩.<ref name="Poedjosoedarmo-1982">{{Cite book |last=Poedjosoedarmo |first=Soepomo |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/144387/1/PL-D38.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/144387/1/PL-D38.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Javanese influence on Indonesian |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |year=1982 |volume=38 |location=Canberra |pages=19–50 |language=en |chapter=Javanese influence on Indonesian phonology}}</ref>

In traditional Malay, high vowels (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) could not appear in a final syllable if a mid-vowel (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) appeared in the previous syllable, and conversely, mid-vowels (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) could not appear in the final syllable if a high vowel (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) appeared in the previous syllable.<ref name="The Indonesian Language 2004. Page 14" />

Traditional Malay does not allow the mid-central schwa vowel to occur in consonant open or closed word-final syllables. The schwa vowel was introduced in closed syllables under the influence of Javanese and Jakarta Malay, but Dutch borrowings made it more acceptable. Although Alisjahbana argued against it, insisting on writing ⟨a⟩ instead of an ⟨ê⟩ in final syllables such as ''koda'' (vs ''kode'' 'code') and nasionalisma (vs ''nasionalisme'' 'nationalism'), he was unsuccessful.<ref name="The Indonesian Language 2004. Page 14" /> This spelling convention was instead survived in [[Balinese language|Balinese]] orthography.

====Diphthongs====
Indonesian has four [[diphthong]] phonemes only in open syllables.<ref name="EYDV">{{cite act|title=Keputusan Kepala Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa Kementerian Pendidikan, Kebudayaan, Riset, dan Teknologi Republik Indonesia Nomor 0424/I/BS.00.01/2022 Tentang Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia Yang Disempurnakan|language=id|type=Language Center Decree|index=0424/I/BS.00.01/2022|date=2022|legislature=[[Language Development and Fostering Agency]]|url=https://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/produk-detail/3685/ejaan-yang-disempurnakan-eyd}}</ref> They are:
* {{IPA|/ai̯/}}: ''ked'''ai''''' ('shop'), ''pand'''ai''''' ('clever')
* {{IPA|/au̯/}}: ''kerb'''au''''' ('buffalo'), ''lim'''au''''' ('lime')
* {{IPA|/oi̯/}} (or {{IPA|/ʊi̯/}} in Indonesian): ''amb'''oi''''' ('wow')'', t'''oi'''let'' ('toilet')
* {{IPA|/ei̯/}}: ''surv'''ei''''' ('survey'), ''g'''ei'''ser'' ('geyser')

Some analyses assume that these diphthongs are actually a monophthong followed by an approximant, so {{angbr|ai}} represents {{IPA|/aj/}}, {{angbr|au}} represents {{IPA|/aw/}}, and {{angbr|oi}} represents {{IPA|/oj/}}. On this basis, there are no phonological diphthongs in Indonesian.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Clynes | first1 = A | year = 1997 | title = On the Proto-Austronesian 'diphthongs' | journal = Oceanic Linguistics | volume = 36 | issue = 2 | pages = 347–362 | doi=10.2307/3622989 |jstor=3622989 }}</ref>

Diphthongs are differentiated from two vowels in two syllables, such as:
* {{IPA|/a.i/}}: e.g. ''l'''ai'''n'' ('other') {{IPA|[la.in]}}, '''''ai'''r'' ('water') {{IPA|[a.ir]}}
* {{IPA|/a.u/}}: ''b'''au''''' ('smell') {{IPA|[ba.u]}}, ''l'''au'''t'' ('sea') {{IPA|[la.ut]}}

===Consonants===
{|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|-
|+Indonesian consonant phonemes
! colspan=2| 
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}
| {{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Plosive]]/<br>[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t̪}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}
| {{IPA link|k}}
| ({{IPA link|ʔ}})
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d}}
| {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
| 
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| ({{IPA link|f}})
| {{IPA link|s}}
| ({{IPA link|ʃ}})
| ({{IPA link|x}})
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| ({{IPA link|v}})
| ({{IPA link|z}})
| 
| 
| 
|-
! colspan=2| [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| {{IPA link|w}}
| {{IPA link|l}}
| {{IPA link|j}}
| 
| 
|-
! colspan=2| [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
| {{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|}

The consonants of Indonesian are shown above.<ref name="SodOlson2008">{{cite journal | last1 = Soderberg | first1 = C. D. | last2 = Olson | first2 = K. S. | year = 2008 | title = Indonesian | journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume = 38 | issue = 2| pages = 209–213 | doi=10.1017/s0025100308003320| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="ClynesDet2011">{{cite journal |last1=Clynes |first1=A. |last2=Deterding |first2=D. |year=2011 |title=Standard Malay (Brunei) |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=259–268 |doi=10.1017/S002510031100017X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Non-native consonants that only occur in borrowed words, principally from Arabic and English, are shown in parentheses. Some analyses list 19 "primary consonants" for Indonesian as the 18 symbols that are not in parentheses in the table as well as the glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}. The secondary consonants /f/, /v/, /z/, /ʃ/ and /x/ only appear in loanwords. Only small amounts of speakers pronounce /v/ in loanwords as [v], most of them pronounce them as [f]. Likewise, /x/ is mostly replaced with [h] or [k] by some speakers. /ʃ/ is sometimes replaced with /s/, which was traditionally used as a substitute for /ʃ/ in older borrowings from [[Sanskrit]], and /f/ is rarely replaced, though /p/ was substituted for /f/ in older borrowings such as kopi "coffee" from [[Dutch language|Dutch]] koffie. /z/ may occasionally be replaced with /s/ or /d͡ʒ/. [z] can also be an allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants.<ref>Asmah Haji Omar (2008). ''Ensiklopedia Bahasa Melayu''. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, page 108.</ref><ref>Yunus Maris, M. (1980). ''The Indonesian Sound System''. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd, page 52.</ref> According to some analyses, postalveolar affricates {{IPAslink|tʃ}} and {{IPAslink|dʒ}} are instead palatals {{IPAblink|c}} and {{IPAblink|ɟ}} in Indonesian.<ref>[https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send%3Faccession%3Dosu1651140749118127%26disposition%3Dinline&ved=2ahUKEwjO9d_2zc39AhUzyTgGHT_-A10QFnoECBwQAQ&usg=AOvVaw2mTMeMAFiIPE-x_vYRceXg ''To Tap or Not To Tap: A Preliminary Acoustic Description of American English Alveolar Tap Productions by Indonesian Bilingual Adults'']</ref>

The consonants in Indonesian are influenced by other important languages in Indonesian history. The influences included schwa in final closed syllable (e.g. Indonesian pəcəl vs Malay pəcal), initial homorganic nasal stop clusters of ⟨mb⟩, ⟨nd⟩, and ⟨nj⟩ (e.g. Indonesian ''mbolos'' 'to malinger'), the consonant-semivowel clusters (e.g. Indonesian ''pria'' vs Malay ''pəria'' 'male'),{{Clarify|reason=How is r a semivowel?|date=October 2023}} introduction of consonant clusters ⟨-ry-⟩ and ⟨-ly-⟩ (e.g. Indonesian ''gərilya'' vs Malay ''gərila'' 'guerrilla'), increased usage of initial ⟨w-⟩ (e.g. ''warta'' and ''bərita'' 'news') and intervocalic ⟨w-⟩, and increase of initial and post-consonant ⟨y⟩ [j]. These changes resulted from influences of local languages in Indonesia, such as Balinese, Madurese, Sundanese and especially Javanese, and foreign languages such as Arabic and Dutch.<ref name="Poedjosoedarmo-1982" />

'''Orthographic note''':

The sounds are represented orthographically by their symbols as above, except:

* {{IPAslink|ɲ}} is written {{angbr|ny}}.
* {{IPAslink|ŋ}} is written {{angbr|ng}}.
* The glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}} is written as a final {{angbr|k}} (the use {{angbr|k}} from its being an allophone of /k/ or /ɡ/ in the syllable coda), or it can be unwritten.
* {{IPAslink|tʃ}} is written {{angbr|c}}.
* {{IPAslink|dʒ}} is written {{angbr|j}}.
* {{IPAslink|ʃ}} is written {{angbr|sy}}.
* {{IPAslink|x}} is written {{angbr|kh}}.
* {{IPAslink|j}} is written {{angbr|y}}.

=== Stress ===
Indonesian has light [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] that falls on either the final or [[Penult|penultimate syllable]], depending on regional variations as well as the presence of the schwa ({{IPA|/ə/}}) in a word. It is generally the penultimate syllable that is stressed, unless its vowel is a schwa {{IPA|/ə/}}. If the penult has a schwa, then stress usually moves to the final syllable.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Soderberg |first1=Craig D. |last2=Olson |first2=Kenneth S. |date=2008 |title=Indonesian |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=209–213 |doi=10.1017/S0025100308003320|doi-access=free }}</ref>

However, there is some disagreement among linguists over whether stress is phonemic (unpredictable), with some analyses suggesting that there is no underlying stress in Indonesian.<ref name="ClynesDet2011" /><ref name="Zur2008">{{cite journal |first1=Zuraidah |last1=Mohd Don |last2=Knowles |first2=G. |last3=Yong |first3=J. |year=2008 |title=How words can be misleading: A study of syllable timing and 'stress' in Malay |journal=The Linguistics Journal |volume=3 |issue=2 |url=https://www.linguistics-journal.com/2014/01/08/how-words-can-be-misleading-a-study-of-syllable-timing-and-stress-in-malay/ |access-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801235943/https://www.linguistics-journal.com/2014/01/08/how-words-can-be-misleading-a-study-of-syllable-timing-and-stress-in-malay/ |archive-date=1 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://email.eva.mpg.de/~gil/ismil/11/abstracts/Gil.pdf |access-date=25 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225063313/http://email.eva.mpg.de/~gil/ismil/11/abstracts/Gil.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2012  |last=Gil |first=David |title=A Typology of Stress, And Where Malay/Indonesian Fits In}} (abstract only)</ref>

=== Rhythm ===
The classification of languages based on rhythm can be problematic.<ref>Roach, P. (1982). "On the distinction between 'stress-timed' and 'syllable-timed' languages".  In D. Crystal (ed.), ''Linguistic Controversies'' (pp.&nbsp;73–79). London: Edward Arnold.</ref> Nevertheless, acoustic measurements suggest that Indonesian has more syllable-based rhythm than British English,<ref>Deterding, D. (2011). "Measurements of the rhythm of Malay". In ''Proceedings of the 17th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Hong Kong, 17–21 August 2011'', pp. 576–579. [http://www.ubd.edu.bn/academic/faculty/FASS/staff/docs/DD/ICPhS-HK-Malay-rhythm.pdf On-line Version] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515020831/http://www.ubd.edu.bn/academic/faculty/FASS/staff/docs/DD/ICPhS-HK-Malay-rhythm.pdf |date=15 May 2013 }}</ref> even though doubts remain about whether the syllable is the appropriate unit for the study of Malay prosody.<ref name="Zur2008" />