XY sex-determination system

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File:Drosophila XY sex-determination.svg

Drosophila sex-chromosomes

Template:Multiple image The XY sex-determination system is a sex-determination system present in many mammals, including humans, some insects (Drosophila), some snakes, some fish (guppies), and some plants (Ginkgo tree).

In this system, the sex of an individual usually is determined by a pair of sex chromosomes. Typically, females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome (XX), and are called the homogametic sex. Males typically have two different kinds of sex chromosomes (XY), and are called the heterogametic sex.<ref name="Hake-2014">Template:Cite journal</ref> In humans, the presence of the Y chromosome is responsible for triggering male development; in the absence of the Y chromosome, the fetus will undergo female development. In most species with XY sex determination, an organism must have at least one X chromosome in order to survive.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The XY system contrasts in several ways with the ZW sex-determination system found in birds, some insects, many reptiles, and various other animals, in which the heterogametic sex is female. A temperature-dependent sex determination system is found in some reptiles and fish.

Mechanisms

All animals have a set of DNA coding for genes present on chromosomes. In humans, most mammals, and some other species, two of the chromosomes, called the X chromosome and Y chromosome, code for sex. In these species, one or more genes are present on their Y chromosome that determine maleness. In this process, an X chromosome and a Y chromosome act to determine the sex of offspring, often due to genes located on the Y chromosome that code for maleness. Offspring have two sex chromosomes: an offspring with two X chromosomes (XX) will develop female characteristics, and an offspring with an X and a Y chromosome (XY) will develop male characteristics, except in various exceptions such as individuals with Swyer syndrome, that have XY chromosomes and a female phenotype, and de la Chapelle Syndrome, that have XX chromosomes and a male phenotype, however these exceptions are rare.

Mammals

In most mammals, sex is determined by presence of the Y chromosome. This makes individuals with XXY and XYY karyotypes males, and individuals with X and XXX karyotypes females.<ref name="Hake-2014" />

In the 1930s, Alfred Jost determined that the presence of testosterone was required for Wolffian duct development in the male rabbit.<ref name="Jost-1970">Template:Cite journal</ref>

SRY is a sex-determining gene on the Y chromosome in the therians (placental mammals and marsupials).<ref name="Wallis-2008">Template:Cite journal</ref> Non-human mammals use several genes on the Y chromosome.Template:Citation needed

Not all male-specific genes are located on the Y chromosome. The platypus, a monotreme, use five pairs of different XY chromosomes with six groups of male-linked genes, AMH being the master switch.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Humans

File:Human male karyotpe high resolution - XY chromosome cropped.JPG

Human male XY chromosomes after G-banding

A single gene (SRY) present on the Y chromosome acts as a signal to set the developmental pathway towards maleness. Presence of this gene starts off the process of virilization. This and other factors result in the sex differences in humans.<ref name="Fauci-2008">Template:Cite book</ref> The cells in females, with two X chromosomes, undergo X-inactivation, in which one of the two X chromosomes is inactivated. The inactivated X chromosome remains within a cell as a Barr body.

Other animals

Some species of turtles have convergently evolved XY sex determination systems, specifically those in Chelidae and Staurotypinae.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Other species (including most Drosophila species) use the presence of two X chromosomes to determine femaleness: one X chromosome gives putative maleness, but the presence of Y chromosome genes is required for normal male development. In the fruit fly individuals with XY are male and individuals with XX are female; however, individuals with XXY or XXX can also be female, and individuals with X can be males.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Plants

Angiosperms

While very few species of dioecious angiosperm have XY sex determination, making up less than 5% of all species, the sheer diversity of angiosperms means that the total number of species with XY sex determination is actually quite high, estimated to be at around 13,000 species. Molecular and evolutionary studies also show that XY sex determination has evolved independently many times in upwards of 175 unique families, with a recent study suggesting its evolution has independently occurred hundreds to thousands of times.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Many economically important crops are known to have an XY system of sex determination, including kiwifruit,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> asparagus,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> grapes<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and date palms.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Gymnosperms

In sharp contrast to angiosperms, approximately 65% of gymnosperms are dioecious. Some families which contain members that are known to have a XY system of sex determination include the cycad families Cycadaceae and Zamiaceae, Ginkgoaceae, Gnetaceae and Podocarpaceae.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Other systems

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Whilst XY sex determination is the most familiar, since it is the system that humans use, there are a range of alternative systems found in nature. The inverse of the XY system (called ZW to distinguish it) is used in birds and many insects, in which it is the females that are heterogametic (ZW), while males are homogametic (ZZ).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Many insects of the order Hymenoptera instead have a haplo-diploid system, where the females are full diploids (with all chromosomes appearing in pairs) but males are haploid (having just one copy of all chromosomes). Some other insects have the X0 sex-determination system, where just the sex-determining chromosome varies in ploidy (XX in females but X in males), while all other chromosomes appear in pairs in both sexes.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Influences

Genetic

File:PBB Protein SRY image.jpg

PBB Protein SRY image

In an interview for the Rediscovering Biology website,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> researcher Eric Vilain described how the paradigm changed since the discovery of the SRY gene: Template:Blockquote

In an interview by Scientific American in 2007, Vilian was asked: "It sounds as if you are describing a shift from the prevailing view that female development is a default molecular pathway to active pro-male and antimale pathways. Are there also pro-female and antifemale pathways?"<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> He replied:

Template:Blockquote

In mammals, including humans, the SRY gene triggers the development of non-differentiated gonads into testes rather than ovaries. However, there are cases in which testes can develop in the absence of an SRY gene (see sex reversal). In these cases, the SOX9 gene, involved in the development of testes, can induce their development without the aid of SRY. In the absence of SRY and SOX9, no testes can develop and the path is clear for the development of ovaries. Even so, the absence of the SRY gene or the silencing of the SOX9 gene are not enough to trigger sexual differentiation of a fetus in the female direction. A recent finding suggests that ovary development and maintenance is an active process,<ref> Template:Cite journal</ref> regulated by the expression of a "pro-female" gene, FOXL2. In an interview<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> for the TimesOnline edition, study co-author Robin Lovell-Badge explained the significance of the discovery: Template:Blockquote

Implications

Looking into the genetic determinants of human sex can have wide-ranging consequences. Scientists have been studying different sex determination systems in fruit flies and animal models to attempt an understanding of how the genetics of sexual differentiation can influence biological processes like reproduction, ageing<ref> Template:Cite journal</ref> and disease.

Maternal

In humans and many other species of animals, the father determines the sex of the child. In the XY sex-determination system, the female-provided ovum contributes an X chromosome and the male-provided sperm contributes either an X chromosome or a Y chromosome, resulting in female (XX) or male (XY) offspring, respectively.

Hormone levels in the male parent affect the sex ratio of sperm in humans.<ref name="Krackow-1995"/> Maternal influences also impact which sperm are more likely to achieve conception.

Human ova, like those of other mammals, are covered with a thick translucent layer called the zona pellucida, which the sperm must penetrate to fertilize the egg. Once viewed simply as an impediment to fertilization, recent research indicates the zona pellucida may instead function as a sophisticated biological security system that chemically controls the entry of the sperm into the egg and protects the fertilized egg from additional sperm.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Recent research indicates that human ova may produce a chemical which appears to attract sperm and influence their swimming motion. However, not all sperm are positively impacted; some appear to remain uninfluenced and some actually move away from the egg.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Maternal influences may also be possible that affect sex determination in such a way as to produce fraternal twins equally weighted between one male and one female.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The time at which insemination occurs during the estrus cycle has been found to affect the sex ratio of the offspring of humans, cattle, hamsters, and other mammals.<ref name="Krackow-1995">Template:Cite journal</ref> Hormonal and pH conditions within the female reproductive tract vary with time, and this affects the sex ratio of the sperm that reach the egg.<ref name="Krackow-1995"/>

Sex-specific mortality of embryos also occurs.<ref name="Krackow-1995"/>

History

Ancient ideas on sex determination

Aristotle believed incorrectly that the sex of an infant is determined by how much heat a man's sperm had during insemination. He wrote: Template:Blockquote Aristotle claimed in error that the male principle was the driver behind sex determination,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> such that if the male principle was insufficiently expressed during reproduction, the fetus would develop as a female.

20th century genetics

File:Nettie Maria Stevens.jpg

Nettie Stevens in 1904

File:Edmund Beecher Wilson between about 1885 and 1891.jpg

Edmund Beecher Wilson, before 1891

Nettie Stevens (working with beetles) and Edmund Beecher Wilson (working with hemiptera) are credited with independently discovering, in 1905, the chromosomal XY sex-determination system in insects: the fact that males have XY sex chromosomes and females have XX sex chromosomes.<ref name="Brush-1978">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Stevens">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the early 1920s, Theophilus Painter demonstrated that sex in humans (and other mammals) was also determined by the X and Y chromosomes, and the chromosomes that make this determination are carried by the spermatozoa.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The first clues to the existence of a factor that determines the development of testis in mammals came from experiments carried out by Alfred Jost,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> who castrated embryonic rabbits in utero and noticed that they all acquired a female phenotype.<ref name="Zhao-2019">Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 1959, C. E. Ford and his team, in the wake of Jost's experiments, discovered<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> that the Y chromosome was needed for a fetus to develop as male when they examined patients with Turner's syndrome, who grew up as phenotypic females, and found them to be X0 (hemizygous for X and no Y). At the same time, Jacob & Strong described a case of a patient with Klinefelter syndrome (XXY),<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> which implicated the presence of a Y chromosome in development of maleness.<ref name="Schoenwolf-2009" />

All these observations led to a consensus that a dominant gene that determines testis development (TDF) must exist on the human Y chromosome.<ref name="Schoenwolf-2009" /> The search for this testis-determining factor (TDF) led to Peter Goodfellow's team of scientists<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> in 1990 to discover a region of the Y chromosome that is necessary for the male sex determination, which was named SRY (sex-determining region of the Y chromosome).<ref name="Schoenwolf-2009">Template:Cite book</ref>

References

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External links

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