Chinese sovereign

The Chinese sovereign was the ruler of a particular monarchical regime in the historical periods of ancient China and imperial China. Sovereigns ruling the same regime, and descended from the same paternal line, constituted a dynasty. Several titles and naming schemes have been used throughout Chinese history.

Sovereign titles

Emperor

Template:Main The characters Huang (皇 huáng "august (ruler)") and Di (帝 dì "divine ruler") had been used separately and never consecutively (see Three August Ones and Five Emperors). The character was reserved for mythological rulers until the first emperor of Qin (Qin Shi Huang), who created a new title Huangdi (皇帝 in pinyin: huáng dì) for himself in 221 BCE, which is commonly translated as Emperor in English. This title continued in use until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912.

From the Han dynasty, the title Huangdi could also be abbreviated to huang or di. The former nobility titles Qing (卿), Daifu (大夫) and Shi (仕) became synonyms for court officials.

The power of the emperor varied between emperors and dynasties, with some emperors being absolute rulers and others being figureheads with actual power lying in the hands of court factions, eunuchs, the bureaucracy or noble families. In principle, the title of emperor was transmitted from father to son via primogeniture, as endorsed by Confucianism. However, there are many exceptions to this rule. For example, because the Emperor usually had many concubines, the first born of the empress (i.e. the chief consort) is usually the heir apparent. However, Emperors could elevate another more favoured child or the child of a favourite concubine to the status of Crown Prince. Disputes over succession occurred regularly and have led to a number of civil wars. In the Qing dynasty, primogeniture was abandoned altogether, with the designated heir kept secret until after the Emperor's death.

Of the San Huang Wu Di, the three first of them were called 皇 (huang, "august (ruler)") and the five last were called 帝 (di, "divine ruler"), which can translate as either emperor, demigod, divine ancestor, or superhuman. This title may have been used in the Shang and Xia dynasties, though oracle bones were found from the Shang dynasty showing the title 王 (wáng, "king").

King

The king (王, wáng) was the Chinese head of state during the Zhou dynasty. Its use during the Xia and Shang is uncertain but possible: the character has been found upon oracle bones. It was abolished under the Qin and, after that, the same term was used for (and translated as) royal princes. The title was commonly given to members of the Emperor's family and could be inherited. A poem from about 2,500 years ago said "普天之下,莫非王土.率土之賓,莫非王臣" which roughly translates as "Under the sky, nothing isn't the king's land; the people who lead the lands, no one isn't the king's subjects."

Son of Heaven

"Son of Heaven" was a title of the Emperor based on the Mandate of Heaven. The Son of Heaven is a universal emperor who rules tianxia comprising "all under heaven".Template:Sfn The title was not interpreted literally. The monarch is a mortal chosen by Heaven, not its actual descendant.Template:Sfn The title comes from the Mandate of Heaven, created by the monarchs of the Zhou dynasty to justify deposing the Shang dynasty. They declared that Heaven had revoked the mandate from the Shang and given it to the Zhou in retaliation for their corruption and misrule. Heaven bestowed the mandate to whoever was best fit to rule. The title held the emperor responsible for the prosperity and security of his people through the threat of losing the mandate.Template:Sfn

Unlike with over sovereigns such as the Emperor of Japan, Chinese political theory allowed for dynastic change, based on the concept of the Mandate of Heaven. The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the Son of Heaven. As the only legitimate ruler, his authority extended to "all under heaven" and had neighbors only in a geographical sense. He holds a mandate to which he had a valid claim to rule over (or to lead) everyone else in the world as long as he served the people well. If the ruler became immoral, then rebellion is justified and heaven would take away that mandate and give it to another. This single most important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties regardless of social or ethnic background. This principle made it possible for dynasties founded by families of non-noble origins such as the Han dynasty and the Ming dynasty or non-ethnic Han dynasties such as the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the Mandate of Heaven. Every dynasty that self-consciously adopted this administrative practice powerfully reinforced this Sinocentric concept throughout the history of imperial China. Historians noted that this was one of the key reasons why imperial China in many ways had the most efficient system of government in ancient times.

It was generally not possible for a woman to succeed to the throne and in the history of China; there has only been one reigning Empress, Wu Zetian (624–705), who usurped the throne of the Tang dynasty by establishing her own Wu Zhou dynasty.

Self-made titles

Xiang Yu styled himself Template:Lang (Template:Lang, lit. Hegemon-King of Western Chu).

Non-Han titles taken by Chinese rulers

Emperor Taizong of Tang was crowned Tian Kehan 天可汗, or "heavenly Khagan", after defeating the Gokturks, (Tujue).<ref>Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 249.</ref>

Monarchical titles

Chinese monarchs possessed an elaborate set of monarchical titles, both when they were alive and after their death. Based on Chinese historiographical convention, monarchs of China are typically referred to by one of their many titles, although it is not incorrect per se to reference them using other titles that they held. Even though exceptions exist, Chinese rulers until the end of the Sui dynasty are mainly referred to by their posthumous names, monarchs from the Tang dynasty to the Yuan dynasty are generally known by their temple names, while rulers from the Ming dynasty onwards are typically known by their era names. As some of these titles were used repeatedly throughout history, historians often reference the name of the regime to avoid potential confusion. The same monarchical tradition was adopted throughout the Chinese cultural sphere.

General format in Mandarin Chinese: Template:Block indent Template:Block indent

Regnal name

Regnal names (Template:Lang; Template:Transliteration) were monarchical titles adopted during the reign of monarchs or after their abdication. Due to naming taboo, regnal names were the most straightforward method Chinese rulers could be referred to during their regimes.

Examples of regnal names

Personal name Template:Small	Regnal name	Dynasty
Ying Zheng Template:Lang	Shi Huangdi Template:Lang	Qin
Wu Zhao Template:Lang	Emperor Cishi Yuegu Jinlun Shengshen Template:Lang	Wu Zhou
Liu Jiyuan Template:Lang	Emperor Yingwu Template:Lang	Northern Han
Zhao Heng Template:Lang	Emperor Yingtian Zundao Qinming Renxiao Template:Lang	Northern Song
Yelü Dashi Template:Lang	Emperor Tianyou Template:Lang	Western Liao
Borjigin Kublai Template:Lang	Emperor Xiantian Shudao Renwen Yiwu Daguang Xiao Template:Lang	Yuan

Era name

Era names (Template:Lang; Template:Transliteration) were proclaimed by Chinese sovereigns for the purpose of identifying and numbering years since 140 BC, during the reign of the Emperor Wu of Han.<ref name="EraName1">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="EraName2">Template:Cite book</ref> Strictly speaking, era names were not personal titles of Chinese monarchs per se. However, as most rulers of the Ming and Qing dynasties adopted only one era name throughout the entirety of their reigns, era names have come to be closely associated with Ming and Qing monarchs, to the extent that they are frequently referenced using their respective era names by historians.

Although a specific era name could be used by one monarch only, there were also many instances in which an era name was used by multiple monarchs, or a monarch could proclaim numerous era names throughout his/her reign. For this reason, it would be tedious for Chinese monarchs before the Ming dynasty to be referred to by their era names.

Examples of era names

Personal name Template:Small	Era name(s)	Dynasty
Cao Pi Template:Lang	Huangchu Template:Lang	Cao Wei
Fu Jian Template:Lang	Yongxing Template:Lang Ganlu Template:Lang Jianyuan Template:Lang	Former Qin
Xiao Fangzhi Template:Lang	Shaotai Template:Lang Taiping Template:Lang	Liang
Liu Yan Template:Lang	Qianheng Template:Lang Bailong Template:Lang Dayou Template:Lang	Southern Han
Li Liangzuo Template:Lang	Yansiningguo Template:Lang Tianyouchuisheng Template:Lang Fushengchengdao Template:Lang Duodu Template:Lang Gonghua Template:Lang	Western Xia
Zhu Zhanji Template:Lang	Xuande Template:Lang	Ming

Temple name

Temple names (Template:Lang; Template:Transliteration) were accorded to Chinese monarchs after their death, for the purpose of ancestor worship. Temple names consisted of two or three Chinese characters, with the last word being either Template:Transliteration (Template:Lang; "progenitor") or Template:Transliteration (Template:Lang; "ancestor").

Examples of temple names

Personal name Template:Small	Temple name	Dynasty
Yuan Ziyou Template:Lang	Jingzong Template:Lang	Northern Wei
Yang Jian Template:Lang	Gaozu Template:Lang	Sui
Li Dan Template:Lang	Ruizong Template:Lang	Tang
Wang Jipeng Template:Lang	Kangzong Template:Lang	Min
Wanyan Sheng Template:Lang	Taizong Template:Lang	Jin
Aisin Gioro Xuanye Template:Lang	Shengzu Template:Lang	Qing

Posthumous name

Posthumous names (Template:Lang; Template:Transliteration) were accorded to Chinese monarchs after their death. These were adjectives originally intended to determine the achievements and moral values, or the lack thereof, of one's life.

Examples of posthumous names

Personal name Template:Small	Posthumous name	Dynasty
Ji Yun Template:Lang	Duke Huan Template:Lang	Lu
Mi Wan Template:Lang	King Kaolie Template:Lang	Chu
Liu Zhao Template:Lang	Emperor Xiaohe Template:Lang	Eastern Han
Qifu Qiangui Template:Lang	Prince Wuyuan Template:Lang	Western Qin
Zhu Yujian Template:Lang	Emperor Peitian Zhidao Hongyi Sumu Siwen Liewu Minren Guangxiao Xiang Template:Lang	Southern Ming
Aisin Gioro Zaitian Template:Lang	Emperor Tongtian Chongyun Dazhong Zhizheng Jingwen Weiwu Renxiao Ruizhi Duanjian Kuanqin Jing Template:Lang	Qing

Historiographical denomination

Historians sometimes refer to certain Chinese rulers using generic terms, mostly due to their lack of regnal name, temple name or posthumous name. These terms describe the circumstances of the monarchs and are not officially accorded by the regimes themselves. The monarchical rank held by the rulers is affixed to the back of these adjectives to form the full historiographical denominations. For example, "Template:Transliteration" (Template:Lang) is formed from the amalgamation of "Template:Transliteration" (Template:Lang; "deposed") and the abbreviated form of "Template:Transliteration" (Template:Lang; "emperor"), thus is used to refer to monarchs who were overthrown.

Examples of historiographical denominations

Historiographical term	Meaning
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang	"Young"
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang	"Young"
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang	"Deposed"
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang	"Abdicated"
Template:Transliteration Template:Lang	"Final"

See also

Emperor of China (Era names, Temple name, Posthumous name) List of Chinese monarchs Chinese emperors family tree Ancient – Warring States – Early – Middle – Late

Chinese historiography History of China (dynasties) & (timeline) Chinese nobility List of recipients of tribute from China Succession to the Chinese throne

List of tributaries of Imperial China Mandate of Heaven Taiping Rebellion Monarchy of China Heavenly King Gurkhan

References

Sources

• Yap, Joseph P. (2009). "Official Titles and Institutional Terms - Qin and Han" pp612–620 and Chapter 1. pp 38–39 in "Wars With The Xiongnu - A Translation From Zizhi tongjian" . AuthorHouse. Template:ISBN
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book