Pineapple
Template:Short description Template:Other uses Template:Redirect Template:Pp-semi-indef Template:Use dmy dates Template:Speciesbox
The pineapple<ref name="Morton 1987">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> (Ananas comosus) is a tropical plant with an edible fruit; it is the most economically significant plant in the family Bromeliaceae.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The pineapple is indigenous to South America, where it has been cultivated for many centuries. The introduction of the pineapple plant to Europe in the 17th century made it a significant cultural icon of luxury. Since the 1820s, pineapple has been commercially grown in greenhouses and many tropical plantations.
Pineapples grow as a small shrub; the individual flowers of the unpollinated plant fuse to form a multiple fruit. The plant normally propagates from the offset produced at the top of the fruit<ref name="Morton 1987" /><ref name="PWG" /> or from a side shoot, and typically matures within a year.<ref name="PWG">Template:Cite webTemplate:Dead link</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Description
[edit]The pineapple is a herbaceous perennial, which grows to Template:Convert tall on average, although sometimes it can be taller. The plant has a short, stocky stem with tough, waxy leaves. When creating its fruit, it usually produces up to 200 flowers, although some large-fruited cultivars can exceed this. Once it flowers, the individual fruits of the flowers join together to create a multiple fruit. After the first fruit is produced, side shoots (called 'suckers' by commercial growers) are produced in the leaf axils of the main stem. These suckers may be removed for propagation, or left to produce additional fruits on the original plant.<ref name="PWG" /> Commercially, suckers that appear around the base are cultivated. It has 30 or more narrow, fleshy, trough-shaped leaves that are Template:Convert long, surrounding a thick stem; the leaves have sharp spines along the margins. In the first year of growth, the axis lengthens and thickens, bearing numerous leaves in close spirals. After 12 to 20 months, the stem grows into a spike-like inflorescence up to Template:Convert long with over 100 spirally arranged, trimerous flowers, each subtended by a bract.
In the wild, pineapples are pollinated primarily by hummingbirds.<ref name="Morton 1987" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Certain wild pineapples are foraged and pollinated at night by bats.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Under cultivation, because seed development diminishes fruit quality, pollination is performed by hand, and seeds are retained only for breeding.<ref name="Morton 1987" /> In Hawaii, where pineapples were cultivated and canned industrially throughout the 20th century,<ref name="HortScience" /> importation of hummingbirds was prohibited.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The ovaries develop into berries, which coalesce into a large, compact, multiple fruit. The fruit of a pineapple is usually arranged in two interlocking helices, often with 8 in one direction and 13 in the other, each being a Fibonacci number.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The pineapple carries out CAM photosynthesis,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> fixing carbon dioxide at night and storing it as the acid malate, then releasing it during the day aiding photosynthesis. Template:Clear
Taxonomy
[edit]The pineapple comprises five botanical varieties, formerly regarded as separate species.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> The genomes of three varieties, including the wild progenitor variety bracteatus, have been sequenced.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
| Image | Varieties | Distribution |
|---|---|---|
| File:Ananas bracteatus, Dole Pineapple Plantation, Oahu, Hawaii, USA2.jpg | Ananas comosus var. bracteatus (L.B.Sm.) Coppens & F.Leal | Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, Ecuador |
| File:Ananas 01.JPG | Ananas comosus var. comosus (Linnaeus) Merrill | Brazil and Paraguay; naturalized in parts of Asia, Africa, Australia, Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, northern South America, and various islands in the Pacific |
| File:Curuá (cropped).JPG | Ananas comosus var. erectifolius (L.B.Sm.) Coppens & F.Leal | Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, northern Brazil, French Guiana |
| File:Ananas nanus 20060514-2.jpg | Ananas comosus var. microstachys (Mez) L.B.Sm. | from Costa Rica to Paraguay |
| Ananas comosus var. parguazensis (Camargo & L.B.Sm.) Coppens & F.Leal | Colombia, Venezuela, northern Brazil, Guyana, French Guiana |
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History
[edit]Etymology
[edit]The first reference in English to the pineapple fruit was the 1568 translation from the French of André Thevet's The New Found World, or Antarctike where he refers to a Template:Lang, a fruit cultivated and eaten by the Tupinambá people, living near modern Rio de Janeiro, and now believed to be a pineapple.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Later in the same English translation, he describes the same fruit as a "Nana made in the manner of a Pine apple", where he used another Tupi word Template:Lang.<ref>Davidson, A. (2008). The Penguin Companion to Food. Penguin Books.</ref> This usage was adopted by many European languages and led to the plant's scientific binomial Template:Lang, where Template:Lang 'tufted' refers to the stem of the plant. Purchas, writing in English in 1613, referred to the fruit as Ananas, but the Oxford English DictionaryTemplate:'s first record of the word pineapple itself by an English writer is by Mandeville in 1714.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Precolonial cultivation
[edit]The wild plant originates from the Paraná–Paraguay River drainages between southern Brazil and Paraguay.<ref name="Morton 1987" /><ref name=":1">Bertoni, Template:Lang, Template:Lang. Paraguay (2nd series) 4 (by1919:250–322).</ref><ref>Baker, K. F.; Collins, J. L. (1939). "Notes on the distribution and ecology of Ananas and Pseudananas in South America". American Journal of Botany.</ref><ref>Collins. J. L. (1960). The pineapple: botany, utilization, cultivation. London: Leonard Hill.</ref> Little is known about its domestication, but it spread as a crop throughout South America. Archaeological evidence of use is found as far back as 1200–800 BC (3200–2800 BP) in Peru<ref>Pearsall, Deborah M. (1992). "The Origins of Plant Cultivation in South America". In The Origins of Agriculture : An International Perspective. 173–205. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.</ref> and 200 BC – 700 AD (2200–1300 BP) in Mexico,<ref>Callen, Eric O. (1967). "Analysis of the Tehuacan coprolites". The prehistory of the Tehuacan Valley 1: 261–289.</ref> where it was cultivated by the Mayas and the Aztecs.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> By the late 1400s, cropped pineapple was widely distributed and a staple food of Native Americans. The first European to encounter the pineapple was Christopher Columbus, in Guadeloupe on 4 November 1493.<ref name="history">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref> The Portuguese took the fruit from Brazil and introduced it into India by 1550.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The 'Template:Interlanguage link' cultivar was also introduced by the Spanish from Latin America to the Philippines, and it was grown to produce piña fibers that would then be used to produce textiles from at least the 17th century.<ref name="pfmf"/>
Columbus brought the plant back to Spain and called it Template:Lang, meaning "pine of the Indians". The pineapple was documented in Peter Martyr's Decades of the New World (1516) and Antonio Pigafetta's Template:Lang (1524–1525), and the first known illustration was in Oviedo's Template:Lang (1535).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Old World introduction
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While the pineapple fascinated Europeans as a fruit of colonialism,<ref name="Cumo">Cumo, Christopher (2015). Foods that Changed History: How Foods Shaped Civilization from the Ancient World to the Present. ABC-CLIO. p. 294.</ref> it was not successfully cultivated in Europe until Pieter de la Court (1664–1739) developed greenhouse horticulture near Leiden.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":2" /> Pineapple plants were distributed from the Netherlands to English gardeners in 1719 and French ones in 1730.<ref name=":2" /> In England, the first pineapple was grown at Dorney Court, Dorney in Buckinghamshire, and a huge "pineapple stove" to heat the plants was built at the Chelsea Physic Garden in 1723.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Sheller">Sheller, Mimi (2003). Consuming the Caribbean: From Arawaks to Zombies. Routledge. p. 80.</ref> In France, King Louis XV was presented with a pineapple that had been grown at Versailles in 1733. In Russia, Peter the Great imported de la Court's method into St. Petersburg in the 1720s; in 1730, twenty pineapple saplings were transported from there to a greenhouse at Empress Anna's new Moscow palace.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web (The article title is a citation from an earlier history work and refers to mid-18th century.)</ref>
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Because of the expense of direct import and the enormous cost in equipment and labour required to grow them in a temperate climate, in greenhouses called "pineries", pineapple became a symbol of wealth. They were initially used mainly for display at dinner parties, rather than being eaten, and were used again and again until they began to rot.Template:Sfnp In the second half of the 18th century, the production of the fruit on British estates became the subject of great rivalry between wealthy aristocrats.Template:Sfnp John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, built a hothouse on his estate surmounted by a huge stone cupola 14 metres tall in the shape of the fruit; it is known as the Dunmore Pineapple.<ref>Stevenson, Jack (1995). Exploring Scotland's Heritage: Glasgow, Clydesdale, and Stirling. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. p. 83.</ref> In architecture, pineapple figures became decorative elements symbolizing hospitality.<ref name="Curl">Curl, James Stevens (2003). Classical Architecture: An Introduction to Its Vocabulary and Essentials, with a Select Glossary of Terms. W. W. Norton. p. 206.</ref><ref name="Morrison">Hugh Morrison (1952). Early American Architecture: From the First Colonial Settlements to the National Period. Oxford University Press. p. 302.</ref><ref name="Harris">Harris, Cyril Manton (1998). American Architecture: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. W. W. Norton. p. 248.</ref>
Since the 19th century: mass commercialization
[edit]Many different varieties, mostly from the Antilles, were tried for European glasshouse cultivation. The most significant cultivar was "Smooth Cayenne", first imported to France in 1820, then subsequently re-exported to the United Kingdom in 1835, and then from UK, the cultivation spread via Hawaii to Australia and Africa. The "Smooth Cayenne" cultivar (and sub-selections or clones of the "Smooth Cayenne") make up for the majority of world pineapple production today.<ref name=":2" /> Jams and sweets based on pineapple were imported to Europe from the West Indies, Brazil, and Mexico from an early date. By the early 19th century, fresh pineapples were transported direct from the West Indies in large enough quantities to reduce European prices.<ref name=":2" /> Later pineapple production was dominated by the Azores for Europe, and Florida and the Caribbean for North America, because of the short trade routes.
The Spanish had introduced the pineapple into Hawaii in the 18th century<ref name="MatthewsWigsten2010">Template:Cite book</ref> where it is known as the Template:Lang ("foreign hala"),<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> but the first commercial plantation was established in 1886. The most famous investor was James Dole, who moved to Hawaii in 1899<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and started a Template:Convert pineapple plantation in 1900 which grew into the Dole Food Company.<ref name="faculty.ucc.edu">Template:Cite web</ref> Dole and Del Monte began growing pineapples on the island of Oahu in 1901 and 1917, respectively, and the Maui Pineapple Company began cultivation on Maui in 1909.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> James Dole began the commercial processing of pineapple, and Dole employee Henry Ginaca invented an automatic peeling and coring machine in 1911.<ref name=":2" />
Hawaiian production started to decline from the 1970s because of competition and the shift to refrigerated sea transport. Dole ceased its cannery operations in Honolulu in 1991, and in 2008, Del Monte terminated its pineapple-growing operations in Hawaii.<ref name="rhodes">Template:Cite web</ref> In 2009, the Maui Pineapple Company reduced its operations to supply pineapples only locally on Maui,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and by 2013, only the Dole Plantation on Oahu grew pineapples in a volume of about 0.1 percent of the world's production.<ref name="rhodes" /> Despite this decline, the pineapple is sometimes used as a symbol of Hawaii.<ref>"The Agriculture of Hawaii: Hawaii Pineapples". To-Hawaii.com. Accessed 28 August 2018.</ref><ref name="HortScience">Template:Cite journal</ref> Further, foods with pineapple in them are sometimes known as "Hawaiian" for this reason alone.
In the Philippines, "Smooth Cayenne" was introduced in the early 1900s by the US Bureau of Agriculture during the American colonial period. Dole and Del Monte established plantations in the island of Mindanao in the 1920s; in the provinces of Cotabato and Bukidnon, respectively.<ref name="pfmf">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="go">Template:Cite web</ref> Large scale canning had started in Southeast Asia, including in the Philippines, from 1920. This trade was severely damaged by World War II, and Hawaii dominated the international trade until the 1960s.
The Philippines remain one of the top exporters of pineapples in the world. The Del Monte plantations are now locally managed, after Del Monte Pacific Ltd., a Filipino company, completed the purchase of Del Monte Foods in 2014.<ref>Template:Cite report</ref>
Composition
[edit]Nutrition
[edit]Template:Nutritional value Raw pineapple pulp is 86% water, 13% carbohydrates, 0.5% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, raw pineapple supplies Template:Convert of food energy, and is a rich source of manganese (40% Daily Value, DV) and vitamin C (53% DV), but otherwise contains no micronutrients in significant amounts (table).
Phytochemistry
[edit]Pineapple fruits and peels contain diverse phytochemicals, among which are polyphenols, including gallic acid, syringic acid, vanillin, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, coumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, epicatechin, and arbutin.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Present in all parts of the pineapple plant,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> bromelain is a mixture of proteolytic enzymes. It is present in stem, fruit, crown, core, leaves of pineapple itself.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bromelain is under preliminary research for treatment of a variety of clinical disorders, but has not been adequately defined for its effects in the human body.<ref name="mlp">Template:Cite web</ref> Bromelain may be unsafe for some users, such as in pregnancy, allergies, or anticoagulation therapy.<ref name=mlp />
Having sufficient bromelain content, raw pineapple juice may be useful as a meat marinade and tenderizer.<ref name="jfst">Template:Cite journal</ref> Although pineapple enzymes can interfere with the preparation of some foods or manufactured products, such as gelatin-based desserts or gel capsules,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> their proteolytic activity responsible for such properties may be degraded during cooking and canning. The quantity of bromelain in a typical serving of pineapple fruit is probably not significant, but specific extraction can yield sufficient quantities for domestic and industrial processing.<ref name="jfst" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Varieties
[edit]Cultivars
[edit]Many cultivars are known.<ref name="Morton 1987" /> The leaves of the commonly grown "Smooth Cayenne" cultivar and its various clones are smooth,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and it is the most commonly grown worldwide. Many cultivars have become distributed from its origins in Paraguay and the southern part of Brazil, and later improved stocks were introduced into the Americas, the Azores, Africa, India, Malaysia and Australia.<ref name="Morton 1987" /> Varieties include:Template:Citation needed
- "Hilo" is a compact, 1.0- to 1.5-kg (2– to 3-lb) Hawaiian variant of smooth cayenne; the fruit is more cylindrical and produces many suckers, but no slips.
- "Kona sugarloaf", at 2.5 to 3.0 kg (5–6 lb), has white flesh with no woodiness in the center, is cylindrical in shape, and has a high sugar content but no acid; it has an unusually sweet fruit.
- "Natal queen", at 1.0 to 1.5 kg (2 to 3 lb), has golden yellow flesh, crisp texture, and delicate mild flavor; well-adapted to fresh consumption, it keeps well after ripening. It has spiny leaves and is grown in Australia, Malaysia, and South Africa.
- "Pernambuco" ("eleuthera") weighs 1–2 kg (2–4 lb), and has pale yellow to white flesh. It is sweet, melting in texture, and excellent for eating fresh; it is poorly adapted for shipping, has spiny leaves, and is grown in Latin America.
- "Red Spanish", at 1–2 kg (2–4 lb), has pale yellow flesh with a pleasant aroma, is squarish in shape, and well-adapted for shipping as fresh fruit to distant markets; it has spiny leaves and is grown in Latin America and the Philippines. It was the original pineapple cultivar in the Philippines grown for their leaf fibers (piña) in the traditional Philippine textile industry.<ref name="pfmf" /><ref name="go" />
- "Smooth cayenne", a 2.5- to 3.0-kg (5- to 6-lb), pale yellow– to yellow-fleshed, cylindrical fruit with high sugar and acid content, is well-adapted to canning and processing; its leaves are without spines. It is an ancient cultivar developed by Amerind peoples.<ref name= Bartholomew /> In some parts of Asia, this cultivar is known as Sarawak, after an area of Malaysia in which it is grown.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It is one of the ancestors of cultivars "73-50" (also called "MD-1" and "CO-2") and "73–114" (also called "MD-2").<ref name= Bartholomew>Template:Cite journal</ref> Smooth cayenne was previously the variety produced in Hawaii, and the most easily obtainable in U.S. grocery stores, but was replaced over the course of the mid-1990s and 2000s by MD-2.<ref name= Bartholomew /> The success of Del Monte's MD-2 caused Dole to obtain & grow its own MD-2 pineapples, leading to Del Monte Fresh Produce Co. v. Dole Food Co..
- Some Ananas species are grown as ornamentals for color, novel fruit size, and other aesthetic qualities.
In the US, in 1986, the Pineapple Research Institute was dissolved and its assets divided between Del Monte and Maui Land and Pineapple. Del Monte took cultivar '73–114', dubbed 'MD-2', to its plantations in Costa Rica, found it to be well-suited to growing there, and launched it publicly in 1996 as 'Gold Extra Sweet', while Del Monte also began marketing '73–50', dubbed 'CO-2', as 'Del Monte Gold'.<ref name="Bartholomew" /> The Maui Pineapple Company began growing variety 73-50 in 1988 and named it Maui Gold.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The successor company to MPC, the Hali'imaile Pineapple Company continues to grow Maui Gold on the slopes of Haleakala.
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Pineapples in a greenhouse
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Tropical Gold
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Victoria
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| Country | Millions of tonnes |
|---|---|
| Template:IDN | 3.2 |
| Template:PHI | 2.9 |
| Template:CRI | 2.9 |
| Template:BRA | 2.3 |
| Template:CHN | 2.0 |
| Template:THA | 1.7 |
| World | 29.4 |
Cultivation
[edit]In commercial farming, flowering can be induced artificially, and the early harvesting of the main fruit can encourage the development of a second crop of smaller fruits. Once removed during cleaning, the top of the pineapple can be planted in soil and a new plant will grow. Slips and suckers are planted commercially.<ref name="Morton 1987" />
Storage and transport
[edit]Some buyers prefer green fruit, others ripened or off-green. A plant growth regulator, Ethephon, is typically sprayed onto the fruit one week before harvest, developing ethylene, which turns the fruit golden yellow. After cleaning and slicing, a pineapple is typically canned in sugar syrup with added preservative.<ref name="Morton 1987" /> A pineapple never becomes any riper than it was when harvested since it is a non-climacteric fruit.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Ethical and environmental concerns
[edit]Like most modern fruit production, pineapple plantations are highly industrialized operations. In Costa Rica particularly, the pineapple industry uses large amounts of insecticides to protect the crop, which have caused health problems in many workers. These workers often receive little compensation, and are mostly poor migrants, often Nicaraguan. Workers' wages also decrease every time prices are lowered overseas. In 2016, the government declared that it would be trying to improve the situation, with the help of various other groups.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Historically, tropical fruit agriculture, such as for pineapples, has been concentrated in so-called "banana republics".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Big Fruit Template:Webarchive, NY Times</ref>
Illegal drug trade
[edit]Export pineapples from Costa Rica to Europe are often used as a cover for narcotrafficking, and containers are impounded routinely in both locations.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Expansion into protected areas
[edit]In Costa Rica, pineapple cultivation has expanded into the Maquenque, Template:Lang, Barra del Colorado and Caño Negro wildlife refuges, all located in the north of the country. As those are protected areas and not national parks, limited and restricted sustainable activities are allowed, however pineapple plantations are industrial operations and many of these do not have the proper license to operate in the protected areas, or were started before either the designation of the area, recent regulations or the creation of the environmental regulatory agency (Setena) in 1996. The agency has registers for around Template:Convert of pineapple plantations operating within protected areas, but satellite imagery from 2018 reports around Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Pests and diseases
[edit]Template:Main Pineapples are subject to a variety of diseases, the most serious of which is wilt disease vectored by mealybugs<ref name="aps">Template:Cite web</ref> typically found on the surface of pineapples, but possibly in the closed blossom cups.<ref name="Morton 1987" /> Other diseases include citrus pink disease, bacterial heart rot, anthracnose,<ref name="aps" /> fungal heart rot, root rot, black rot, butt rot, fruitlet core rot, and yellow spot virus.<ref name="foodmarketexchange1">"Pests and Diseases of Pineapple". Food Market Exchange. Template:Webarchive. Retrieved on 2 October 2011.</ref> Pineapple pink disease (not citrus pink disease) is characterized by the fruit developing a brownish to black discoloration when heated during the canning process. The causal agents of pink disease are the bacteria Acetobacter aceti, Gluconobacter oxydans, Pantoea citrea<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and Tatumella ptyseos.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Some pests that commonly affect pineapple plants are scales, thrips, mites, mealybugs, ants, and symphylids.<ref name="foodmarketexchange1" />
Heart-rot is the most serious disease affecting pineapple plants. The disease is caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi and P. parasitica, fungi that often affect pineapples grown in wet conditions. Since it is difficult to treat, it is advisable to guard against infection by planting resistant cultivars where these are available; all suckers that are required for propagation should be dipped in a fungicide, since the fungus enters through the wounds.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Production
[edit]In 2022, world production of pineapples was 29 million tonnes, led by Indonesia, the Philippines, and Costa Rica, each producing about 3 million tonnes.<ref name=faostat/>
Uses
[edit]Culinary
[edit]The flesh and juice of the pineapple are used in cuisines around the world. In many tropical countries, pineapple is prepared and sold on roadsides as a snack. It is sold whole or in halves with a stick inserted. Whole, cored slices with a cherry in the middle are a common garnish on hams in the West. Chunks of pineapple are used in desserts such as fruit salad, as well as in some savory dishes, including the Hawaiian pizza, or as a grilled ring on a hamburger. Traditional dishes that use pineapple include Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and Hawaiian haystack. Crushed pineapple is used in yogurt, jam, sweets, and ice cream. The juice of the pineapple is served as a beverage, and it is also the main ingredient in cocktails such as the Template:Lang and in the drink Template:Lang.
In the Philippines, a traditional jelly-like dessert called Template:Lang has also been produced since the 18th century. It is made by fermenting pineapple juice with the bacteria Komagataeibacter xylinus.<ref name="Vergara">Template:Cite book</ref>
Pineapple vinegar is an ingredient found in both Honduran and Filipino cuisine, where it is produced locally.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In Mexico, it is usually made with peels from the whole fruit, rather than the juice; however, in Taiwanese cuisine, it is often produced by blending pineapple juice with grain vinegar.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The European Union consumed 50% of the global total for pineapple juice in 2012–2016. The Netherlands was the largest importer of pineapple juice in Europe. Thailand, Costa Rica and the Netherlands are the major suppliers to the European Union market in 2012–2016.<ref>"Exporting pineapple juice to Europe". CBI Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 22 May 2019.</ref> Countries consuming the most pineapple juice in 2017 were Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines, having combined consumption of 47% of the world total. The consumption of pineapple juice in China and India is low compared to their populations.<ref>"Population growth drives gradual expansion of pineapple juice market". Template:Webarchive AgriOrbit. Retrieved 22 May 2019.</ref>
Textiles
[edit]Template:Main The 'Red Spanish' cultivar of pineapples were once extensively cultivated in the Philippines. The long leaves of the cultivar were the source of traditional Template:Lang fibers, an adaptation of the native weaving traditions with fibers extracted from Template:Lang. These were woven into lustrous lace-like Template:Lang fabrics usually decorated with intricate floral embroidery known as Template:Lang and Template:Lang. The fabric was a luxury export from the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period and gained favor among European aristocracy in the 18th and 19th centuries. Domestically, they were used to make the traditional Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and Template:Lang clothing of the Filipino upper class, as well as women's kerchiefs (Template:Lang). They were favored for their light and breezy quality, which was ideal in the hot tropical climate of the islands. The industry was destroyed in the Second World War and is only starting to be revived.<ref name="pfmf" /><ref name="go" /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Houseplant
[edit]The variety A. comosus 'Variegatus' is occasionally grown as a houseplant. It needs direct sunlight and thrives at temperatures of Template:Convert, with a minimum winter temperature of Template:Convert. It should be kept humid, but the soil should be allowed to dry out between waterings. It has almost no resting period but should be repotted each spring until the container reaches Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
See also
[edit]Template:Portal Template:Div col
References
[edit]Bibliography
[edit]- Menzel, Christopher. "Tropical and Subtropical Fruit". Encyclopedia of Agricultural Science Volume 4. Template:ISBN. Charles J Arntzen. New York: Elsevier Science Publishing Co. Inc., Academic Press, 2012. 380–382.
External links
[edit]- Pineapple Fruit Facts (Template:Webarchive)—information on pineapples from California Rare Fruit Growers
- "The Strange History of the 'King-PineTemplate:'" from The Paris Review
Template:Pineapples Template:Tripura Template:Taxonbar Template:Authority control