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Peppermint

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Peppermint (Mentha × piperita) is a hybrid species of mint, a cross between watermint and spearmint.<ref>Template:Cite book Archived on 6 April 2017.</ref> Indigenous to Europe and the Middle East,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> the plant is now widely spread and cultivated in many regions of the world.<ref name= empp>Euro+Med Plantbase Project: Mentha × piperitaTemplate:Webarchive</ref> It is occasionally found in the wild with its parent species.<ref name= empp/><ref name=fnwe>Flora of NW Europe: Mentha × piperita Template:Webarchive</ref>

Although the genus Mentha comprises more than 25 species, the one in most common use is peppermint.<ref name= "Mimica-Dukic 2008 3141–3150">Template:Cite journal</ref> While Western peppermint is derived from Mentha × piperita, Chinese peppermint, or bohe, is derived from the fresh leaves of M. haplocalyx.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Citation</ref> M. × piperita and M. haplocalyx are both recognized as plant sources of menthol and menthone, and are among the oldest herbs used for both culinary and medicinal products.<ref name="Mimica-Dukic 2008 3141–3150"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Botany

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File:Mentha-piperita.JPG
Peppermint flowers
File:Mentha × piperita - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-095.jpg
An 1887 illustration from Köhlers; Medicinal Plants

Peppermint was first identified in Hertfordshire, England, by a Dr. Eales, a discovery which John Ray published 1696 in the second edition of his book Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum. He initially gave it the name Mentha spicis brevioribus et habitioribus, foliis Mentha fusca, sapore fervido piperis and later in his 1704 volume Historia Plantarum he called it Mentha palustris or Peper–Mint. The plant was then added to the London Pharmacopoeia under the name Mentha piperitis sapore in 1721.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

It was given the name Mentha piperita in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum Volume 2.<ref name="cl">Linnaeus, C. (1753). Species Plantarum 2: 576–577.</ref> Linnaeus treated peppermint as a species, but it is now universally agreed to be a hybrid between Mentha viridis and Mentha aquatica with Mentha viridis itself also being a hybrid between Mentha sylvestris and Mentha rotundifolis.<ref name=harley>Harley, R. M. (1975). Mentha L. In: Stace, C. A., ed. Hybridization and the flora of the British Isles page 387.</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Peppermint is an herbaceous, rhizomatous, perennial plant that grows to be Template:Convert tall, with smooth stems, square in cross section. The rhizomes are wide-spreading and fleshy, and bear fibrous roots. The leaves can be Template:Convert long and Template:Convert broad. They are dark green with reddish veins, with an acute apex and coarsely toothed margins. The leaves and stems are usually slightly fuzzy. The flowers are purple, Template:Convert long, with a four-lobed corolla about Template:Convert diameter; they are produced in whorls (verticillasters) around the stem, forming thick, blunt spikes.

Flowering season lasts from mid- to late summer. The chromosome number is variable, with 2n counts of 66, 72, 84, and 120 recorded.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=rhs>Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan. Template:ISBN.Template:Page needed</ref><ref name=blamey>Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. Template:ISBNTemplate:Page needed</ref> Peppermint is a fast-growing plant, spreading quickly once it has sprouted.

Ecology

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Peppermint typically occurs in moist habitats, including stream sides and drainage ditches. Being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, producing no seeds and reproducing only vegetatively, spreading by its runners.<ref name=fnwe/><ref name=blamey/>

Outside of its native range, areas where peppermint was formerly grown for oil often have an abundance of feral plants, and it is considered invasive in Australia, the Galápagos Islands, New Zealand,<ref name=pier>Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk: Mentha x piperita Template:Webarchive</ref> and the United States<ref name=usda>Template:PLANTS</ref> in the Great Lakes region, noted since 1843.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Cultivation

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File:Mint 2014-06-01 00-53.jpg
Peppermint grown in a pot outside a house

Peppermint generally grows best in moist, shaded locations, and expands by underground rhizomes. Young shoots are taken from old stocks and dibbled into the ground about 0.5 m (1.5 ft) apart. They grow quickly and cover the ground with runners if it is permanently moist. For the home gardener, it is often grown in containers to restrict rapid spreading. It grows best with a good supply of water, without being water-logged, and planted in areas with partial sun to shade.

The leaves and flowering tops are used; they are collected as soon as the flowers begin to open and can be dried. The wild form of the plant is less suitable for this purpose, with cultivated plants having been selected for more and better oil content. They may be allowed to lie and wilt a little before distillation, or they may be taken directly to the still.

Cultivars

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Several cultivars have been selected for garden use:

Commercial cultivars may include:

  • Dulgo pole<ref name=seof>Template:Cite web</ref>
  • Zefir<ref name=seof />
  • Bulgarian population #2<ref name=seof />
  • Clone 11-6-22<ref name=seof />
  • Clone 80-121-33<ref name=seof />
  • Mitcham Digne 38<ref name=oppr>Template:Cite journal</ref>
  • Mitcham Ribecourt 19<ref name=oppr />
  • 'Todd's Mitcham', a verticillium wilt-resistant cultivar produced from a breeding and test program of atomic gardening at Brookhaven National Laboratory from the mid-1950s<ref name=oppr /><ref name="Craker-et-al-2003">Template:Cite journal</ref>
  • 'Refined Murray', also verticillium-resistant<ref name="Craker-et-al-2003" />
  • 'Roberts Mitcham', also verticillium-resistant<ref name="Craker-et-al-2003" /> and also the product of mutation breeding

Diseases

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Verticillium wilt is a major constraint in peppermint cultivation. 'Todd's Mitcham', 'Refined Murray', 'Roberts Mitcham' (see above), and a few other cultivars have some degree of resistance.<ref name="Craker-et-al-2003" />

Peppermint production
2022, in tonnes
Template:MAR 42,898
Template:ARG 6,977
Template:MEX 1,173
World 51,081
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations<ref name="fao">Template:Cite web</ref>

Production

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In 2022, world production of peppermint was 51,081 tonnes, led by Morocco with 84% of the total and Argentina with 14% (table).

In the United States, Oregon and Washington produce most of the country's peppermint,<ref name="osu">Template:Cite web</ref> the leaves of which are processed for the essential oil to produce flavorings mainly for chewing gum and toothpaste.<ref name="pihl">Template:Cite news</ref>

Chemical constituents

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Peppermint has a high menthol content. The essential oil also contains menthone and carboxyl esters, particularly menthyl acetate.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Dried peppermint typically has 0.3–0.4% of volatile oil containing menthol (7–48%), menthone (20–46%), menthyl acetate (3–10%), menthofuran (1–17%), and 1,8-cineol (3–6%). Peppermint oil also contains small amounts of many additional compounds, including limonene, pulegone, caryophyllene, and pinene.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Peppermint contains terpenoids and flavonoids such as eriocitrin, hesperidin, and kaempferol 7-O-rutinoside.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Oil

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Peppermint oil has a high concentration of natural pesticides, mainly pulegone (found mainly in M. arvensis var. piperascens (cornmint, field mint, or Japanese mint),<ref name="Map-Dukes">Template:Cite web</ref> and to a lesser extent (6,530 ppm) in Mentha × piperita subsp. notho<ref name="Mxp-Dukes">Template:Cite web</ref>) and menthone.<ref name="Krieger2001">Template:Cite book</ref> It is known to repel some pest insects, including mosquitos,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and has uses in organic gardeningTemplate:Citation needed. It is also widely used to repel rodents.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The chemical composition of the essential oil from peppermint (Mentha × piperita L.) was analyzed by GC/FID and GC-MS. The main constituents were menthol (40.7%) and menthone (23.4%). Further components were (±)-menthyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, limonene, beta-pinene, and beta-caryophyllene.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Research and health effects

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File:From 'Street Life in London', 1877, by John Thomson and Adolphe Smith (5780910909).jpg
Peppermint throat lozenge, advertised as "prevention better than cure", sold in London in 1877

Peppermint oil is under preliminary research for its potential as a short-term treatment for irritable bowel syndrome,<ref name=Khanna2014>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Ruepert2011>Template:Cite journal</ref> and has supposed uses in traditional medicine for minor ailments.<ref name="mlp">Template:Cite web</ref> Peppermint oil and leaves have a cooling effect when used topically for muscle pain, nerve pain, relief from itching, or as a fragrance.<ref name=mlp/><ref name="keifer">Template:Cite journal</ref> High oral doses of peppermint oil (500 mg) can cause mucosal irritation and mimic heartburn.<ref name=mlp/><ref name=keifer/>

Peppermint roots bioaccumulate radium, so the plant may be effective for phytoremediation of radioactively contaminated soil.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Culinary and other uses

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Fresh or dried peppermint leaves are often used alone in peppermint tea or with other herbs in herbal teas (tisanes, infusions). Peppermint is used for flavouring ice cream, candy, fruit preserves, alcoholic beverages, chewing gum, toothpaste, and some shampoos, soaps, and skin care products.<ref name=osu/><ref name=pihl/>

Menthol activates cold-sensitive TRPM8 receptors in the skin and mucosal tissues, and is the primary source of the cooling sensation that follows the topical application of peppermint oil.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Peppermint oil is also used in construction and plumbing to test for the tightness of pipes and disclose leaks by its odor.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Safety

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Medicinal uses of peppermint have not been approved as effective or safe by the US Food and Drug Administration.<ref name="drugs">Template:Cite web</ref> With caution that the concentration of the peppermint constituent pulegone should not exceed 1% (140 mg), peppermint preparations are considered safe by the European Medicines Agency when used in topical formulations for adult subjects.<ref name="ema">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Diluted peppermint essential oil is safe for oral intake when only a few drops are used.<ref name=mlp/><ref name=ema/>

Although peppermint is commonly available as a herbal supplement, no established, consistent manufacturing standards exist for it, and some peppermint products may be contaminated with toxic metals or other substituted compounds.<ref name=drugs/> Skin rashes, irritation, or allergic reactions may result from applying peppermint oil to the skin,<ref name=drugs/> and its use on the face or chest of young children may cause side effects if the oil menthol is inhaled.<ref name=mlp/><ref name=ema/> A common side effect from oral intake of peppermint oil or capsules is heartburn.<ref name=drugs/> Oral use of peppermint products may have adverse effects when used with iron supplements, cyclosporine, medicines for heart conditions or high blood pressure, or medicines to decrease stomach acid.<ref name=drugs/>

Standardization

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See also

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References

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Template:Herbs & spices Template:Medicinal herbs & fungi Template:Taxonbar Template:Authority control Template:Mint

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