Lupercalia

Template:Short description Template:Hatnote group Template:Infobox holiday Lupercalia, also known as Lupercal, was a pastoral festival of Ancient Rome observed annually on February 15 to purify the city, promoting health and fertility.<ref name="EB1911">Template:EB1911</ref> Lupercalia was also known as dies Februatus, after the purification instruments called februa, the basis for the month named Februarius.

Name

The festival was originally known as Februa ("Purifications" or "Purgings") after the Template:Lang which was used on the day.<ref name=februum>Template:Citation.</ref> It was also known as Template:Lang and gave its name variously, as epithet to Juno Februalis, Februlis, or Februata in her role as patron deity of that month; to a supposed purification deity called Februus;Template:Efn and to February (Template:Lang), the month during which the festival occurred.<ref name=februum/> Ovid connects Template:Lang to an Etruscan word for "purging".<ref name="King2006">Template:Cite book</ref>

The name Lupercalia was believed in antiquity to evince some connection with the Ancient Greek festival of the Arcadian Lykaia, a wolf festival (Template:Langx, lýkos; Template:Langx), and the worship of Lycaean Pan, assumed to be a Greek equivalent to Faunus, as instituted by Evander.<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities 1.32.3–5, 1.80; Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus 43.6ff; Livy, Ab urbe condita 1.5; Ovid, Fasti 2.423–42; Plutarch, Life of Romulus 21.3, Life of Julius Caesar, Roman Questions 68; Virgil, Aeneid 8.342–344; Lydus, De mensibus 4.25. See Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s.v. "Lupercus"</ref> Justin describes a cult image of "the Lycaean god, whom the Greeks call Pan and the Romans Lupercus", as nude, save for a goatskin girdle.<ref>Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus 43.1.7.</ref>

The statue stood in the Lupercal, the cave where tradition held that Romulus and Remus were suckled by the she-wolf (Lupa). The cave lay at the foot of the Palatine Hill, on which Romulus was thought to have founded Rome.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> The name of the festival most likely derives from lupus, "wolf", though both the etymology and its significance are obscure. The wolf appellation may have to do with the fact that an animal predator plays a key role in male rites of passage.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Despite Justin's assertion, no deity named "Lupercus" has been identified.<ref name="Roman Republic 1981 p. 77">Template:Cite book</ref>

Rites

Locations

The rites were confined to the Lupercal cave, the Palatine Hill, and the Forum, all of which were central locations in Rome's foundation myth.<ref>Livy, Ab urbe condita 1.5</ref> Near the cave stood a sanctuary of Rumina, goddess of breastfeeding; and the wild fig-tree (Ficus Ruminalis) to which Romulus and Remus were brought by the divine intervention of the river-god Tiberinus; some Roman sources name the wild fig tree caprificus, literally "goat fig". Like the cultivated fig, its fruit is pendulous, and the tree exudes a milky sap if cut, which makes it a good candidate for a cult of breastfeeding.<ref name=Vuković2018>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Priesthoods

File:Wolf head, 1-100 CE, bronze, Roman, Cleveland Museum of Art.JPG

Lupercalia most likely derives from lupus, "wolf", though both the etymology and its significance are obscure<ref name="Roman Republic 1981 p. 77" /> (bronze wolf's head, 1st century AD)

The Lupercalia had its own priesthood, the Luperci ("brothers of the wolf"), whose institution and rites were attributed either to the Arcadian culture-hero Evander, or to Romulus and Remus, erstwhile shepherds who had each established a group of followers. The Luperci were young men (iuvenes), usually between the ages of 20 and 40. They formed two religious collegia (associations) based on ancestry; the Quinctiliani (named after the gens Quinctia) and the Fabiani (named after the gens Fabia). Each college was headed by a magister.<ref name= Evidence>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 44 BC, a third college, the Juliani, was instituted in honor of Julius Caesar; its first magister was Mark Antony.<ref name= Evidence /> The college of Juliani disbanded or lapsed following the Assassination of Julius Caesar, and was not re-established in the reforms of his successor, Augustus. In the Imperial era, membership of the two traditional collegia was opened to iuvenes of equestrian status.

Sacrifice and fertility rites

At the Lupercal altar, a male goat (or goats) and a dog were sacrificed by one or another of the Luperci, under the supervision of the Flamen dialis, Jupiter's chief priest.Template:Efn An offering was also made of salted mealcakes, prepared by the Vestal Virgins.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Failed verification After the blood sacrifice, two Luperci approached the altar. Their foreheads were anointed with blood from the sacrificial knife, then wiped clean with wool soaked in milk, after which they were expected to laugh.

The sacrificial feast followed, after which the Luperci cut thongs (known as Template:Lang) from the flayed skin of the animal,<ref name= "EB1911"/> and ran with these, naked or near-naked, along the old Palatine boundary, in an anticlockwise direction around the hill.<ref name= Vuković2018 /> In Plutarch's description of the Lupercalia, written during the early Roman Empire, Template:Quote The Luperci completed their circuit of the Palatine, then returned to the Lupercal cave.

While sometimes repeated uncritically by modern sources, there is no ancient evidence for any kind of lottery or sortition scheme pairing couples for sex. The first descriptions of this fictitious lottery appeared in the 15th century in relation to Valentine's Day, with a connection to the Lupercalia first asserted in 18th century antiquarian works, such as those by Alban Butler and Francis Douce.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

History

File:Circle of Adam Elsheimer The Lupercalian Festival in Rome.jpg

The Lupercalian Festival in Rome (ca. 1578–1610), drawing by the circle of Adam Elsheimer, showing the Luperci dressed as dogs and goats, with Cupid and personifications of fertility

The Februa was of ancient and possibly Sabine origin. After February was added to the Roman calendar, Februa occurred on its fifteenth day (Template:Lang). Of its various rituals, the most important came to be those of the Lupercalia.<ref name="Franklin1921">Template:Cite book</ref> The Romans themselves attributed the instigation of the Lupercalia to Evander, a culture hero from Arcadia who was credited with bringing the Olympic pantheon, Greek laws and alphabet to Italy, where he founded the city of Pallantium on the future site of Rome, 60 years before the Trojan War.

Lupercalia was celebrated in parts of Italy; Luperci are attested by inscriptions at Velitrae, Praeneste, Nemausus (modern Nîmes) and elsewhere. The ancient cult of the Hirpi Sorani ("wolves of Soranus", from Sabine hirpus "wolf"), who practiced at Mt. Soracte, Template:Convert north of Rome, had elements in common with the Roman Lupercalia.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Descriptions of the Lupercalia festival of 44 BC attest to its continuity. During the festival, Julius Caesar publicly refused a golden crown offered to him by Mark Antony.<ref>Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: a biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN, p. 72.</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Lupercal cave was restored or rebuilt by Augustus, and has been speculated to be identical with a grotto discovered in 2007, Template:Convert below the remains of Augustus' residence; according to scholarly consensus, the grotto is a nymphaeum, not the Lupercal.<ref name=Vuković2018/> The Lupercalia festival is marked on a calendar of 354 alongside traditional and Christian festivals.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Despite the banning in 391 of all non-Christian cults and festivals, the Lupercalia was celebrated by the nominally Christian populace on a regular basis into the reign of the emperor Anastasius. Pope Gelasius I (494–96) claimed that only the "vile rabble" were involved in the festival<ref>ad viles trivialesque personas, abiectos et infimos. (Gelasius)</ref> and sought its forceful abolition; the Roman Senate protested that the Lupercalia was essential to Rome's safety and well-being. This prompted Gelasius' scornful suggestion that "If you assert that this rite has salutary force, celebrate it yourselves in the ancestral fashion; run nude yourselves that you may properly carry out the mockery".<ref>Gelasius, Epistle to Andromachus, quoted in Green (1931), p. 65.</ref>

There is no contemporary evidence to support the popular notions that Gelasius abolished the Lupercalia, or that he, or any other prelate, replaced it with the Feast of the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A literary association between the Lupercalia and the romantic elements of Saint Valentine's Day dates back to Chaucer and poetic traditions of courtly love.<ref name="Ansgar1986">Henry Ansgar Kelly (1986), in "Chaucer and the Cult of Saint Valentine" (Leiden: Brill), pp. 58-63</ref><ref name="Kaylor2006">Template:Citation</ref><ref name="Oruch1981">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Legacy

File:CaesarRefusesTheDiademRidpathdrawing.jpg

Caesar Refuses the Diadem (1894), when it was offered by Mark Antony during the Lupercalia

Horace's Ode III, 18 alludes to the Lupercalia. The festival or its associated rituals gave its name to the Roman month of February (Template:Lang) and thence to the modern month. The Roman god Februus personified both the month and purification, but seems to postdate both.

William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar begins during the Lupercalia. Mark Antony is instructed by Caesar to strike his wife Calpurnia, in the hope that she will be able to conceive.

Research published in 2019 suggests that the word Leprechaun derives from Lupercus.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

References

Bibliography

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Further reading

• Beard, Mary; North, John; Price, Simon. Religions of Rome: A History. Cambridge University Press, 1998, vol. 1, limited preview online; search "Lupercalia".
• Lincoln, Bruce. Authority: Construction and Corrosion. University of Chicago Press, 1994, pp. 43–44 online on Julius Caesar and the politicizing of the Lupercalia; valuable list of sources pp. 182–183.
• North, John. Roman Religion. The Classical Association, 2000, pp. 47 online and 50 on the problems of interpreting evidence for the Lupercalia.
• Markus, R.A. The End of Ancient Christianity. Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp. 131–134 online, on the continued celebration of the Lupercalia among "uninhibited Christians" into the 5th century, and the reasons for the "brutal intervention" by Pope Gelasius.
• Vuković, K. Wolves of Rome: The Lupercalia from Roman and Comparative Perspectives. Berlin, De Gruyter, 2023.
• Wiseman, T.P. "The Lupercalia". In Remus: A Roman Myth. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 77–88, limited preview online, discussion of the Lupercalia in the context of myth and ritual.

External links

• William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 1875: Lupercalia