Hammerhead shark
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The hammerhead sharks are a group of sharks that form the family Sphyrnidae, named for the unusual and distinctive form of their heads, which are flattened and laterally extended into a cephalofoil (a T-shape or "hammer"). The shark's eyes are placed one on each end of this T-shaped structure, with their small mouths directly centered and underneath. Most hammerhead species are placed in the genus Sphyrna, while the winghead shark is placed in its own genus, Eusphyra. Many different—but not necessarily mutually exclusive—functions have been postulated for the cephalofoil, including sensory reception, manoeuvering, and prey manipulation. The cephalofoil gives the shark superior binocular vision and depth perception.
Hammerheads are found worldwide, preferring life in warmer waters along coastlines and continental shelves. Unlike most sharks, some hammerhead species will congregate and swim in large schools during the day, becoming solitary hunters at night.
Description
[edit]Hammerhead Sharks can vary in length and weight. The largest species of Hammerhead Sharks, the Great Hammerhead, has an average length of 13.1 feet and weight of 500 pounds.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> While the smallest species of Hammerhead, the Bonnethead Shark, can reach 5 feet in length and 24 pounds in weight.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> One specimen caught off the Florida coast in 1906 weighed over Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> They are usually light gray and have a greenish tint. Their bellies are white, which allows them to blend into the background when viewed from below and sneak up to their prey.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Their heads have lateral projections that give them a hammer-like shape. While overall similar, this shape differs somewhat between species; examples are: a distinct T-shape in the great hammerhead, a rounded head with a central notch in the scalloped hammerhead, and an unnotched rounded head in the smooth hammerhead.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Hammerheads have disproportionately small mouths compared to other shark species.<ref name=":2" /> Some species are also known to form schools.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In the evening, like most other sharks, they become solitary hunters.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> National Geographic explained that hammerheads can be found in warm, tropical waters, but during the summer, they begin a mass migration period in search of colder waters.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref>
Taxonomy and evolution
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Since sharks do not have mineralized bones and rarely fossilize, only their teeth are commonly found as fossils. Their closest relatives are the requiem sharks (Carcharinidae). Based on DNA studies and fossils, the ancestor of the hammerheads probably lived in the Early Miocene epoch about 20 million years ago.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Using mitochondrial DNA, a phylogenetic tree of the hammerhead sharks showed the winghead shark as sister to the rest of the hammerhead sharks. As the winghead shark has proportionately the largest "hammer" of the hammerhead sharks, this suggests that the first ancestral hammerhead sharks also had large hammers.<ref name= Mutation>Template:Cite web</ref>
Cephalofoil
[edit]The hammer-like shape of the head may have evolved at least in part to enhance the animal's vision.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The positioning of the eyes, mounted on the sides of the shark's distinctive hammer head, allows 360° of vision in the vertical plane, meaning the animals can see above and below them at all times.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> They also have an increased binocular vision and depth of visual field as a result of the cephalofoil.<ref name="Barley 2019">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The shape of the head was previously thought to help the shark find food, aiding in close-quarters maneuverability, and allowing sharp turning movement without losing stability. The unusual structure of its vertebrae, though, has been found to be instrumental in making the turns correctly, more often than the shape of its head, though it would also shift and provide lift. From what is known about the winghead shark, the shape of the hammerhead apparently has to do with an evolved sensory function. Like all sharks, hammerheads have electroreceptory sensory pores called ampullae of Lorenzini. The pores on the shark's head lead to sensory tubes, which detect electric fields generated by other living creatures.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> By distributing the receptors over a wider area, like a larger radio antenna, hammerheads can sweep for prey more effectively.<ref name= Hammer>Template:Cite web</ref>
Reproduction
[edit]Reproduction occurs only once a year for hammerhead sharks, and usually occurs with the male shark biting the female shark violently until she agrees to mate with him.<ref name="aquaticcommunity">Template:Cite web</ref> The hammerhead sharks exhibit a viviparous mode of reproduction with females giving birth to live young. Like other sharks, fertilization is internal, with the male transferring sperm to the female through one of two intromittent organs called claspers. The developing embryos are at first sustained by a yolk sac. When the supply of yolk is exhausted, the depleted yolk sac transforms into a structure analogous to a mammalian placenta (called a "yolk sac placenta" or "pseudoplacenta"), through which the mother delivers sustenance until birth. Once the baby sharks are born, they are not taken care of by the parents in any way. Usually, a litter consists of 12 to 15 pups, except for the great hammerhead, which gives birth to litters of 20 to 40 pups. These baby sharks huddle together and swim toward warmer water until they are old and large enough to survive on their own.<ref name= "aquaticcommunity" />
In 2007, the bonnethead shark was found to be capable of asexual reproduction via automictic parthenogenesis, in which a female's ovum fuses with a polar body to form a zygote without the need for a male. This was the first shark known to do this.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Diet
[edit]Hammerhead sharks eat a large range of prey such as fish (including other sharks), squid, octopus, and crustaceans. Stingrays are a particular favorite, with the positioning of their (comparatively) smaller, crescent-shaped mouths underneath their T-shaped heads allowing for skilled skate, ray, and flounder hunting, among other seafloor-dwellers. These sharks will often be found swimming above the sand along the bottom of the ocean, stalking their prey. Their unique heads are further utilized as a tool (or weapon) if hunting rays and flatfishes; the shark uses its head to pin down and briefly stun the prey, and only eats once their quarry is clearly weakened and in shock.<ref name= "aquaticcommunity" /> The great hammerhead, tending to be larger and more aggressive to its own kind than other hammerheads, occasionally engages in cannibalism, eating other hammerhead sharks, including mothers consuming their own young.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In addition to the typical animal prey, bonnetheads have been found to feed on seagrass, which sometimes makes up as much as half their stomach contents. They may swallow it unintentionally, but they are able to partially digest it. At the time of discovery, this was the only known case of a potentially omnivorous species of shark<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> (since then, whale sharks were also found to be omnivorous).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Species
[edit]There are ten distinct species of Hammerhead sharks in the wild:<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
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Relationship with humans
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According to the International Shark Attack File, humans have been subjects of 17 documented, unprovoked attacks by hammerhead sharks within the genus Sphyrna since AD 1580. No human fatalities have been recorded.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Most hammerhead shark species are too small to inflict serious damage to humans.<ref name=":1" />
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The great and the scalloped hammerheads are listed on the World Conservation Union's (IUCN) 2008 Red List as endangered, whereas the smalleye hammerhead is listed as vulnerable. The status given to these sharks is as a result of overfishing and demand for their fins, an expensive delicacy. Among others, scientists expressed their concern about the plight of the scalloped hammerhead at the American Association for the Advancement of Science annual meeting in Boston. The young swim mostly in shallow waters along shores all over the world to avoid predators.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Shark fins are prized as a delicacy in certain countries in Asia (such as China), and overfishing is putting many hammerhead sharks at risk of extinction. Fishermen who harvest the animals typically cut off the fins and toss the remainder of the fish, which is often still alive, back into the sea.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> This practice, known as finning, is lethal to the shark.<ref name="GCH">Template:Cite news</ref>
In captivity
[edit]The relatively small bonnethead is regular at public aquariums, as it has proven easier to keep in captivity than the larger hammerhead species,<ref name=Compagno2004>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Smith2004>Template:Cite bookTemplate:Pn</ref> and it has been bred at a handful of facilities.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Nevertheless, at up to Template:Convert in length and with highly specialized requirements, very few private aquarists have the experience and resources necessary to maintain a bonnethead in captivity.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The larger hammerhead species can reach more than twice that size and are considered difficult, even compared to most other similar-sized sharks (such as Carcharhinus species, lemon shark, and sand tiger shark) regularly kept by public aquariums.<ref name=Smith2004/> They are particularly vulnerable during transport between facilities, may rub on surfaces in tanks, and may collide with rocks, causing injuries to their heads, so they require very large, specially adapted tanks.<ref name=Smith2004/><ref name=Tristram2014>Template:Cite journal</ref> As a consequence, relatively few public aquaria have kept them for long periods.<ref name=Smith2004/> The scalloped hammerhead is the most frequently maintained large species, and it has been kept long term at public aquaria in most continents, but primarily in North America, Europe, and Asia.<ref name=Smith2004/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2014, fewer than 15 public aquaria in the world kept scalloped hammerheads.<ref name=Tristram2014/> Great hammerheads have been kept at a few facilities in North America, including Atlantis Paradise Island Resort (Bahamas), Adventure Aquarium (New Jersey), Georgia Aquarium (Atlanta), Mote Marine Laboratory (Florida), and the Shark Reef at Mandalay Bay (Las Vegas).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Smooth hammerheads have also been kept in the past.<ref name=Smith2004/>
Protection
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Humans are the main threat to hammerhead sharks. Although they are not usually the primary target, hammerhead sharks are caught in fisheries all over the world.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite report</ref> Tropical fisheries are the most common place for hammerheads to be caught because of their preference to reside in warm waters.<ref name=":0" /> The total number of hammerheads caught in fisheries is recorded in the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Global Capture Production dataset.<ref name=":0" /> The number steadily increased from 75 metric tons in 1990, to 6,313 metric tons by 2010.<ref name=":0" />
Shark fin traders say that hammerheads have some of the best quality fin needles which makes them good to eat when prepared properly.<ref name=":0" /> Hong Kong is the world's largest fin trade market and accounts for about 1.5% of the total annual amount of fins traded.<ref name=":0" /> It is estimated that around 375,000 great hammerhead sharks alone are traded per year which is equivalent to 21,000 metric tons of biomass.<ref name=":0" /> However, most sharks that are caught are only used for their fins and then discarded.<ref name=":0" /> The meat of hammerheads is generally unwanted. Consumption of hammerhead meat has been recorded in Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, Kenya and Japan.<ref name=":0" /> Hammerhead sharks are particularly vulnerable to overfishing due to their tendency to form large aggregations, making them easy targets for commercial fishing operations. Recent genetic studies indicate that population fragmentation may further threaten their long-term survival, as isolated populations show reduced genetic diversity.<ref>Ovenden, J. R., Kashiwagi, T., Broderick, D., Giles, J., & Salini, J. (2005). The extent of population genetic subdivision differs among four codistributed shark species in the Indo‐Australian archipelago. Conservation Genetics, 6(2), 213–225. doi:10.1007/s10592-005-9036-2</ref>
In March 2013, three endangered, commercially valuable sharks, the hammerheads, the oceanic whitetip, and porbeagle, were added to Appendix II of CITES, bringing shark fishing and commerce of these species under licensing and regulation.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Cultural significance
[edit]Among Torres Strait Islanders, the hammerhead shark, known as the beizam, is a common family totem and often represented in cultural artefacts such as the elaborate headdresses worn for ceremonial dances, known as dhari (dari). They are associated with law and order.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Renowned artist Ken Thaiday Snr is known for his representations of beizam in his sculptural dari and other works.<ref name=redochre2017>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=thaiday>Template:Cite web</ref>
In native Hawaiian culture, sharks are considered to be gods of the sea, protectors of humans, and cleaners of excessive ocean life. Some of these sharks are believed to be family members who died and have been reincarnated into shark form, but others are considered man-eaters, also known as niuhi. These sharks include great white sharks, tiger sharks, and bull sharks. The hammerhead shark, also known as mano kihikihi, is not considered a man-eater or niuhi; it is considered to be one of the most respected sharks of the ocean, an aumakua. Many Hawaiian families believe that they have an aumakua watching over them and protecting them from the niuhi. The hammerhead shark is thought to be the birth animal of some children. Hawaiian children who are born with the hammerhead shark as an animal sign are believed to be warriors and are meant to sail the oceans. Hammerhead sharks rarely pass through the waters of Maui, but many Maui natives believe that their swimming by is a sign that the gods are watching over the families, and the oceans are clean and balanced.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
See also
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References
[edit]External links
[edit]- Template:FishBase family
- Animal Diversity Web Genus Sphyrna with species sub-pages
- "Electroreception in juvenile scalloped hammerhead and sandbar sharks" by Stephen M. Kajiura and Kim N. Holland, The Journal of Experimental Biology (2002). Attempts to explain the "hammer" shape.
- Great hammerhead shark, Sphyrna mokarran, MarineBio.org
- Template:Cite news
- Hammerhead Sharks, Australian Marine Conservation Society
- Hammerhead Shark - Video Template:Webarchive on Check123 - Video Encyclopedia
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