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Cushitic languages

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Template:Short description Template:Infobox language family

The Cushitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken primarily in the Horn of Africa, with minorities speaking Cushitic languages to the north in Egypt and Sudan, and to the south in Kenya and Tanzania. As of 2012, the Cushitic languages with over one million speakers were Oromo, Somali, Beja, Afar, Hadiyya, Kambaata, and Sidama.Template:Sfnp

Official status

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The Cushitic languages with the greatest number of total speakers are Oromo (37 million),<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Somali (22 million),<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Beja (3.2 million),<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Sidamo (3 million),<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and Afar (2 million).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Oromo serves as one of the official working languages of Ethiopia<ref name="africanews.com">Template:Cite news</ref> and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia,<ref name="The world factbook">Template:Cite CIA World Factbook</ref> Harari and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region.<ref name="Ethioct">Template:Cite web</ref>

Somali is the first of two official languages of Somalia and three official languages of Somaliland.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web Template:Cite web</ref> It also serves as a language of instruction in Djibouti,<ref name="Djiloi96">Template:Cite web</ref> and as the working language of the Somali Region in Ethiopia.<ref name="Ethioct"/>

Beja, Afar, Blin and Saho, the languages of the Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic that are spoken in Eritrea, are languages of instruction in the Eritrean elementary school curriculum.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The constitution of Eritrea also recognizes the equality of all natively spoken languages.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Additionally, Afar is a language of instruction in Djibouti,<ref name="Djiloi96"/> as well as the working language of the Afar Region in Ethiopia.<ref name="Ethioct"/>

Origin and prehistory

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Template:See also

Christopher Ehret argues for a unified Proto-Cushitic language in the Red Sea Hills as far back as the Early Holocene.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The expansion of Cushitic languages of the Southern Cushitic branch into the Rift Valley is associated with the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic.Template:Sfnp

Typological characteristics

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Phonology

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Most Cushitic languages have a simple five-vowel system with phonemic length (Template:IPA); a notable exception are the Agaw languages, which do not contrast vowel length, but have one or two additional central vowels.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp The consonant inventory of many Cushitic languages includes glottalic consonants, e.g. in Oromo, which has the ejectives Template:IPA and the implosive Template:IPA.Template:Sfnp Less common are pharyngeal consonants Template:IPA, which appear e.g. in Somali or the Saho–Afar languages.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Most Cushitic languages have a system of restrictive tone also known as ‘pitch accent’ in which tonal contours overlaid on the stressed syllable play a prominent role in morphology and syntax.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Grammar

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Nouns

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Nouns are inflected for case and number. All nouns are further grouped into two gender categories, masculine gender and feminine gender. In many languages, gender is overtly marked directly on the noun (e.g. in Awngi, where all female nouns carry the suffix -a).Template:Sfnp

The case system of many Cushitic languages is characterized by marked nominative alignment, which is typologically quite rare and predominantly found in languages of Africa.Template:Sfnp In marked nominative languages, the noun appears in unmarked "absolutive" case when cited in isolation, or when used as predicative noun and as object of a transitive verb; on the other hand, it is explicitly marked for nominative case when it functions as subject in a transitive or intransitive sentence.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Possession is usually expressed by genitive case marking of the possessor. South Cushitic—which has no case marking for subject and object—follows the opposite strategy: here, the possessed noun is marked for construct case, e.g. Iraqw afé-r mar'i "doors" (lit. "mouths of houses"), where afee "mouth" is marked for construct case.Template:Sfnp

Most nouns are by default unmarked for number, but can be explicitly marked for singular ("singulative") and plural number. E.g. in Bilin, dəmmu "cat(s)" is number-neutral, from which singular dəmmura "a single cat" and plural dəmmut "several cats" can be formed. Plural formation is very diverse, and employs ablaut (i.e. changes of root vowels or consonants), suffixes and reduplication.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Verbs

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Verbs are inflected for person/number and tense/aspect. Many languages also have a special form of the verb in negative clauses.Template:Sfnp

Most Cushitic languages distinguish seven person/number categories: first, second, third person, singular and plural number, with a masculine/feminine gender distinction in third person singular. The most common conjugation type employs suffixes. Some languages also have a prefix conjugation: in Beja and the Saho–Afar languages, the prefix conjugation is still a productive part of the verb paradigm, whereas in most other languages, e.g. Somali, it is restricted to only a few verbs. It is generally assumed that historically, the suffix conjugation developed from the older prefix conjugation, by combining the verb stem with a suffixed auxiliary verb.Template:Sfnp The following table gives an example for the suffix and prefix conjugations in affirmative present tense in Somali.Template:Sfnp

suffix
conjugation 		prefix
conjugation
Template:Nobold Template:Nobold
1st
person 		Template:Small Template:Lang Template:Lang
Template:Small Template:Lang Template:Lang
2nd
person 		Template:Small Template:Lang Template:Lang
Template:Small Template:Lang Template:Lang
3rd
person 		Template:Small Template:Small Template:Lang Template:Lang
Template:Small Template:Lang Template:Lang
Template:Small Template:Lang Template:Lang

Syntax

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Basic word order is verb final, the most common order being subject–object–verb (SOV). The subject or object can also follow the verb to indicate focus.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Classification

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Overview

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The phylum was first designated as Cushitic in 1858.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Traditionally, Cushitic has been divided into North Cushitic (consisting solely of Beja), Central Cushitic (the Agaw languages), and the large East Cushitic group. Greenberg (1950) argued for the inclusion of the South Cushitic group. The Omotic languages, once classified as West Cushitic, have almost universally been reclassified as a separate branch of Afroasiatic.

Template:Tree list

Template:Tree list/end

This classification has not been without contention. For example, it has been argued that Southern Cushitic belongs in the Eastern branch, with its divergence explained by contact with Hadza- and Sandawe-like languages. Hetzron (1980) and Fleming (post-1981) exclude Beja altogether, though this is rejected by other linguists. Some of the classifications that have been proposed over the years are summarized here:

Other subclassifications of Cushitic
Greenberg (1963)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Hetzron (1980)Template:Sfnp Orel & Stolbova (1995) Ehret (2011)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Template:Tree list

  • Cushitic
    • Northern Cushitic (Beja)
    • Central Cushitic
    • Eastern Cushitic
    • Western Cushitic (Omotic)
    • Southern Cushitic

Template:Tree list/end

Template:Tree list

  • Beja (not part of Cushitic)
  • Cushitic
    • Highland
      • Rift Valley (= Highland East Cushitic)
      • Agaw
    • Lowland
      • Saho–Afar
      • Southern
        • Omo-Tana
        • Oromoid
        • Dullay
        • Yaaku
        • Iraqw (i.e. Southern Cushitic)

Template:Tree list/end

Template:Tree list

  • Cushitic
    • Omotic
    • Beja
    • Agaw
    • Sidamic
      (i.e. Highland East Cushitic)
    • East Lowlands
    • Rift (Southern)

Template:Tree list/end

Template:Tree list

  • Cushitic
    • North Cushitic (Beja)
    • Agäw–East–South Cushitic
      • Agäw
      • East–South Cushitic
        • Eastern Cushitic
        • Southern Cushitic

Template:Tree list/end

For debate on the placement of the Cushitic branch within Afroasiatic, see Afroasiatic languages.

Beja

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Template:Main

Beja constitutes the only member of the Northern Cushitic subgroup. As such, Beja contains a number of linguistic innovations that are unique to it, as is also the situation with the other subgroups of Cushitic (e.g. idiosyncratic features in Agaw or Central Cushitic).<ref name="Zaborski1988">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Hetzron (1980) argues that Beja therefore may comprise an independent branch of the Afroasiatic family.Template:Sfnp However, this suggestion has been rejected by most other scholars.Template:Sfnp The characteristics of Beja that differ from those of other Cushitic languages are instead generally acknowledged as normal branch variation.<ref name="Zaborski1988"/>

Didier Morin (2001) assigned Beja to Lowland East Cushitic on the grounds that the language shared lexical and phonological features with the Afar and Saho idioms, and also because the languages were historically spoken in adjacent speech areas. However, among linguists specializing in the Cushitic languages, the standard classification of Beja as North Cushitic is accepted.<ref name="Vanhove2016">Template:Cite web</ref>

Blemmyan, an early form of Beja – mostly attested through onomastic evidence, but also directly by a small text on an ostracon from Saqqara – was spoken by the Blemmyes, an ancient people of Lower Nubia that appears in the Egyptian historical records from the 6th century BCE onwards. It is also likely that the Medjay spoke a language that was ancestral to Beja.Template:Sfn

Omotic

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Cushitic was formerly seen as also including most or all of the Omotic languages. An early view by Enrico Cerulli proposed a "Sidama" subgroup comprising most of the Omotic languages and the Sidamic group of Highland East Cushitic. Mario Martino Moreno in 1940 divided Cerulli's Sidama, uniting the Sidamic proper and the Lowland Cushitic languages as East Cushitic, the remainder as West Cushitic or ta/ne Cushitic. The Aroid languages were not considered Cushitic by either scholar (thought by Cerulli to be instead Nilotic); they were added to West Cushitic by Joseph Greenberg in 1963. Further work in the 1960s soon led to the putative West Cushitic being seen as typologically divergent and renamed as "Omotic".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Today the inclusion of Omotic as a part of Cushitic has been abandoned. Omotic is most often seen as an independent branch of Afroasiatic, primarily due to the work of Harold C. Fleming (1974) and Lionel Bender (1975); some linguists like Paul Newman (1980) challenge Omotic's classification within the Afroasiatic family itself.

Other divergent languages

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There are also a few languages of uncertain classification, including Yaaku, Dahalo, Aasax, Kw'adza, Boon, Ongota and the Cushitic component of Mbugu (Ma'a). There is a wide range of opinions as to how the languages are interrelated.<ref name=Hayward>Richard Hayward, "Afroasiatic", in Heine & Nurse, 2000, African Languages</ref>

The positions of the Dullay languages and of Yaaku are uncertain. They have traditionally been assigned to an East Cushitic subbranch along with Highland (Sidamic) and Lowland East Cushitic. However, Hayward thinks that East Cushitic may not be a valid node and that its constituents should be considered separately when attempting to work out the internal relationships of Cushitic.<ref name=Hayward/> Bender (2020) suggests Yaaku to be a divergent member of the Arboroid group.<ref>Bender, M. Lionel. (2020). Cushitic Lexicon and Phonology. ed. Grover Hudson. (Schriften zur Afrikanistik / Research in African Studies, 28). Berlin: Peter Lang. Template:ISBN</ref>

The Afroasiatic identity of Ongota has also been broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, because of the "mixed" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. Harold C. Fleming (2006) proposes that Ongota is a separate branch of Afroasiatic.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bonny Sands (2009) thinks the most convincing proposal is by Savà and Tosco (2003), namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a Nilo-Saharan substratum. In other words, it would appear that the Ongota people once spoke a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language while retaining some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language.<ref name=Sava2003>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Sands2009>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Hetzron (1980)<ref>Robert Hetzron, "The Limits of Cushitic", Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika 2. 1980, 7–126.</ref> and Ehret (1995) have suggested that the South Cushitic languages (Rift languages) are a part of Lowland East Cushitic, the only one of the six groups with much internal diversity.

Hypothesized Cushitic substrate languages

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Some of the ancient peoples of Nubia are hypothesized to have spoken languages belonging to the Cushitic group, especially the people of the C-Group culture. It has been speculated that these people left a substratum of Cushitic words in the modern Nubian languages. Given the scarcity of data (all omomastic or toponymic), however, it remains unclear if the C-Group culture in fact spoke a Cushitic language.Template:Sfnp

Christopher Ehret (1998) proposed on the basis of loanwords that South Cushitic languages (called "Tale" and "Bisha" by Ehret) were spoken in an area closer to Lake Victoria than are found today.<ref name="Mous">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Also, historically, the Southern Nilotic languages have undergone extensive contact with a "missing" branch of East Cushitic that Heine (1979) refers to as Baz.Template:Sfnp<ref>Heine, Bernd, Franz Rottland & Rainer Voßen. 1979. Proto-Baz: Some aspects of early Nilotic-Cushitic contacts. Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika 1. 75‒92.</ref>

Reconstruction

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Template:Main Christopher Ehret proposed a reconstruction of Proto-Cushitic in 1987, but did not base this on individual branch reconstructions.<ref>Ehret, Christopher. 1987. Proto-Cushitic Reconstruction. In Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika 8: 7–180. University of Cologne.</ref> Grover Hudson (1989) has done some preliminary work on Highland East Cushitic,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> David Appleyard (2006) has proposed a reconstruction of Proto-Agaw,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and Roland Kießling and Maarten Mous (2003) have jointly proposed a reconstruction of West Rift Southern Cushitic.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> No reconstruction has been published for Lowland East Cushitic, though Paul D. Black wrote his (unpublished) dissertation on the topic in 1974.<ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref> Hans-Jürgen Sasse (1979) proposed a reconstruction of the consonants of Proto-East Cushitic.<ref name="Sasse79">Template:Cite journal</ref> No comparative work has yet brought these branch reconstructions together.

Comparative vocabulary

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Basic vocabulary

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Sample basic vocabulary of Cushitic languages from Vossen & Dimmendaal (2020:318) (with PSC denoting Proto-Southern Cushitic):<ref name="Vossen">Vossen, Rainer and Gerrit J. Dimmendaal (eds.). 2020. The Oxford Handbook of African Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>

Branch Northern Southern Eastern Central
Gloss Beja<ref>Roper, E.M. (1928). Tu Beḍawiɛ: Grammar, texts and vocabulary. Hertford: Stephen Austin and Sons.</ref> Iraqw<ref>Kieβling, Roland (2002). Iraqw texts. (Archiv afrikanistischer Manuskripte, 4.) Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.</ref><ref>Kieβling, R., and Mous, M. (2003). The Lexical Reconstruction of West-Rift Southern Cushitic. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.</ref> Oromo<ref>Mahdi Hamid Muudee (1995). Oromo Dictionary I. Atlanta: Sagalee Oromoo Publishing.</ref> Somali<ref>Puglielli, A. & Mansuur, C. (2012). Qaamuuska Af-Soomaaliga. Roma: RomaTrE-Press.</ref> Awŋi<ref>Appleyard, D. (2006). A Comparative Dictionary of the Agäw Languages. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.</ref> Kemantney<ref>Zelealem Leyew (2003). The Kemantney Language: A sociolinguistic and grammatical study of language replacement. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.</ref>
'foot' ragad/lagad yaaee miila/luka lug lɨkw lɨkw
'tooth' kwire siħinoo ilkee ilig ɨrkwí ɨrkw
'hair' hami/d.ifi seʔeengw dabbasaa timo ʧiʧifí ʃibka
'heart' gin'a muuná onnee wadne ɨʃew lɨbäka
'house' gau/'anda doʔ mana guri/min ŋɨn nɨŋ
'wood' hindi ɬupi mukha qori/alwaax kani kana
'meat' ʃa/dof fuʔnaay foon so'/hilib ɨʃʃi sɨya
'water' yam maʔay biʃan biyo/maayo aɣu axw
'door' ɖefa/yaf piindo balbala irrid/albaab lɨmʧi/sank bäla
'grass' siyam/ʃuʃ gitsoo ʧ'itaa caws sigwi ʃanka
'black' hadal/hadod boo gurraʧʧa madow ʧárkí ʃämäna
'red' adal/adar daaʕaat diimaa cas/guduud dɨmmí säraɣ
'road' darab loohi karaa/godaana jid/waddo dad gorwa
'mountain' reba tɬooma tuullu buur kán dɨba
'spear' fena/gwiʃ'a *laabala (PSC) waraana waran werém ʃämärgina
'stick' (n) 'amis/'adi *ħada ulee/dullaa ul gɨmb kɨnbɨ
'fire' n'e ʔaɬa ibidda dab leg wɨzɨŋ
'donkey' mek daqwaay haare dameer dɨɣwarí dɨɣora
'cat' bissa/kaffa maytsí adure bisad/dummad anguʧʧa damiya
'dog' yas/mani seeaay seere eey gɨséŋ gɨzɨŋ
'cow' ʃ'a/yiwe ɬee sa'a sac ɨllwa käma
'lion' hada diraangw lenʧ'a libaax wuʤi gämäna
'hyena' galaba/karai *bahaa (PSC) waraabo waraabe ɨɣwí wäya
'sister' kwa ħoʔoo obboleeytii walaalo/abbaayo séná ʃän
'brother' san nana obboleessa walaal/abboowe sén zän
'mother' de aayi haaɗa hooyo ʧwá gäna
'father' baba taata aabba aabbe tablí aba
'sit' s'a/ʈaʈam iwiit taa'uu fadhiiso ɨnʤikw- täkosɨm-
'sleep' diw/nari guuʔ rafuu hurud ɣur\y- gänʤ-
'eat' tam/'am aag ɲaaʧʧu cun ɣw- xw-
'drink' gw'a/ʃifi wah ɗugaaiti cab zɨq- ʤax-
'kill' dir gaas aʤʤeesuu dil kw- kw-
'speak' hadid/kwinh ʔooʔ dubbattu hadal dibs- gämär-
'thin' 'iyai/bilil *ʔiiraw (PSC) hap'ii caato ɨnʧu k'ät'än-
'fat' dah/l'a *du/*iya (PSC) furdaa shilis/buuran morí wäfär-
'small' dis/dabali *niinaw (PSC) t'innoo yar ʧɨlí ʃigwey
'big' win/ragaga *dir (PSC) guddaa/dagaaga weyn dɨngulí fɨraq

Numerals

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Comparison of numerals in individual Cushitic languages:<ref name="ChanNumeralsNC">Template:Cite book</ref>

Classification Language 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
North Beja (Bedawi) ɡaːl ˈmale mheːj ˈfaɖiɡ eːj (lit: 'hand') aˈsaɡwir (5 + 1) asaːˈrama (5 + 2) asiˈmheːj (5 + 3) aʃˈʃaɖiɡ (5 + 4) ˈtamin
Central Bilin (Bilen) laxw / la ləŋa səxwa sədʒa ʔankwa wəlta ləŋəta səxwəta səssa ʃɨka
Central, Eastern Xamtanga lə́w líŋa ʃáqwa síza ákwa wálta láŋta / lánta sə́wta sʼájtʃʼa sʼɨ́kʼa
Central, Southern Awngi ɨ́mpɨ́l / láɢú láŋa ʃúɢa sedza áŋkwa wɨ́lta láŋéta sóɢéta sésta tsɨ́kka
Central, Western Kimant (Qimant) laɣa / la liŋa siɣwa sədʒa ankwa wəlta ləŋəta səɣwəta səssa ʃɨka
East, Highland Alaaba matú lamú sasú ʃɔːlú ʔɔntú lehú lamalá hizzeːtú hɔnsú tɔnnsú
East, Highland Burji mitʃːa lama fadia foola umutta lia lamala hiditta wonfa tanna
East, Highland Gedeo mitte lame sase ʃoole onde dʒaane torbaane saddeeta sallane tomme
East, Highland Hadiyya mato lamo saso sooro onto loho lamara sadeento honso tommo
East, Highland Kambaata máto lámo sáso ʃóolo ónto lého lamála hezzéeto hónso tordúma
East, Highland Libido mato lamo saso sooro ʔonto leho lamara sadeento honso tommo
East, Highland Sidamo (Sidaama) mite lame sase ʃoole onte lee lamala sette honse tonne
East, Dullay Gawwada tóʔon lákke ízzaħ sálaħ xúpin tappi táʔan sétten kóllan ħúɗɗan
East, Dullay Tsamai (Ts'amakko) doːkːo laːkːi zeːħ salaħ χobin tabːen taħːan sezːen ɡolːan kuŋko
East, Konsoid Bussa (Harso-Bobase) tóʔo lakki, lam(m)e,
lamay		 ezzaħ,
siséħ		 salaħ xúpin cappi caħħan sásse /sésse kollan húddʼan
East, Konsoid Dirasha (Gidole) ʃakka(ha) (fem.) /
ʃokko(ha) (masc.)		 lakki halpatta afur hen lehi tappa lakkuʃeti tsinqoota hunda
East, Konsoid Konso takka lakki sessa afur ken lehi tappa sette saɡal kuɗan
East, Oromo Orma tokkō lamā sadi afurī ʃanī dʒa torbā saddeetī saɡalī kuɗenī
East, Oromo West Central Oromo tokko lama sadii afur ʃani dʒaha torba saddet saɡal kuɗan
East, Saho-Afar Afar enèki / inìki nammàya sidòħu /
sidòħoòyu		 ferèyi /
fereèyi		 konòyu /
konoòyu		 leħèyi /
leħeèyi		 malħiini baħaàra saɡaàla tàbana
East, Saho-Afar Saho inik lam:a adoħ afar ko:n liħ malħin baħar saɡal taman
East, Rendille-Boni Boni kóów, hál-ó (masc.) /
hás-só (fem)		 lába síddéh áfar ʃan líh toddóu siyyéèd saaɡal tammán
East, Rendille-Boni Rendille kôːw /
ko:kalɖay (isolated form)		 lámːa sɛ́jːaħ áfːar t͡ʃán líħ tɛːbá sijːɛ̂ːt saːɡáːl tomón
East, Somali Garre (Karre) kow lamma siddeh afar ʃan liʔ toddobe siyeed saɡaal tommon
East, Somali Somali ków labá sáddeħ áfar ʃán liħ toddobá siddèed saɡaal toban
East, Somali Tunni (Af-Tunni) ków lámma síddiʔ áfar ʃán líʔ toddóbo siyéed saɡáal tómon
East, Arboroid Arbore tokkó (masc.) /
takká (fem.), ˈtaˈka		 laamá, ˈlaːma sezzé, ˈsɛːze ʔafúr, ʔaˈfur tʃénn, t͡ʃɛn dʒih, ˈd͡ʒi tuzba, ˈtuːzba suyé, suˈjɛ saaɡalɗ,
ˈsaɡal		 tommoɲɗ,
ˈtɔmːɔn
East, Arboroid Bayso (Baiso) koo (masc.)
too (fem.)		 lɑ́ɑmɑ sédi ɑ́fɑr ken le todobɑ́ siddéd sɑ́ɑɡɑɑl tómon
East, Arboroid Daasanach tɪ̀ɡɪ̀ɗɪ̀ (adj.) /
tàqàt͡ʃ ̚ (ord.)/ ʔɛ̀ɾ (ord.)		 nàːmə̀ sɛ̀d̪ɛ̀ ʔàfʊ̀ɾ t͡ʃɛ̀n lɪ̀h t̪ɪ̀ːjə̀ síɪ̀t̚ sàːl t̪òmòn
East, Arboroid El Molo t'óko / t'áka l'ááma séépe áfur kên, cên yíi tíípa, s'ápa fúe s'áákal t'ómon
South or East Dahalo vattúkwe (masc.) /
vattékwe (fem.)		 líima kʼaba saʕála dáwàtte,
possibly ← 'hand'		 sita < Swahili saba < Swahili nane kenda / tis(i)a kumi
South Alagwa (Wasi) wák ndʒad tam tsʼiɡaħ kooʔan laħooʔ faanqʼw dakat ɡwelen mibi
South Burunge leyiŋ / leẽ t͡ʃʼada tami t͡ʃʼiɡaħa koːʔani laħaʔu faɴqʼu daɡati ɡweleli mili
South Gorowa (Gorwaa) wak tsʼar tám tsʼiyáħ kooʔán laħóoʔ fâanqʼw dakáat ɡwaléel / ɡweléel mibaanɡw
South Iraqw wák tsár tám tsíyáħ kooán laħoóʔ faaɴw dakaát ɡwaleél mibaaɴw

See also

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Notes

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References

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Further reading

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