Central Powers
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The Central Powers, also known as the Central Empires,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref group="notes">Template:Langx; Template:Langx; Template:Langx, Template:Lang; Template:Langx</ref> were one of the two main coalitions that fought in World War I (1914–1918). It consisted of the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria; this was also known as the Quadruple Alliance.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref group="notes">Template:Langx, Template:Langx, Template:Langx, Template:Langx</ref>
The Central Powers' origin was the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879. Despite having nominally joined the Triple Alliance before, Italy did not take part in World War I on the side of the Central Powers and later joined on the side of the Allied Powers. The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria did not join until after World War I had begun. The Central Powers faced, and were defeated by, the Allied Powers, which themselves had formed around the Triple Entente. They dissolved in 1918 after they lost the war.
Name
[edit]The name 'Central Powers' is derived from the location of its member countries. All four were located between the Russian Empire in the east and France and the United Kingdom in the west.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite web</ref> The Central Powers too used the name in their languages respectively, with the exception of Turkish, in which the Central Powers were called the Template:Lang, Template:Lang, or Template:Lang, 'Allied States'. Likewise in China, an associated state on the Allied side, the Central Powers were called the Template:Lang, Template:Lang, 'Allied States', while the Allies were known as the Template:Lang, Template:Lang, 'Entente States'.Template:Cn
Collaboration
[edit]Germany had plans to create a Mitteleuropa economic association. Members would include Austria-Hungary, Germany, and others.<ref name=":22">Template:Cite web</ref>
History
[edit]Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated on 28 June 1914 by Bosnian Serb student Gavrilo Princip.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> This provoked Austria to deliver an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Serbia ordered general mobilization on 25Template:NbspJuly, but accepted almost all of the terms, the only ones not accepted were the ones empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" in Serbia, and to take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> After claiming that was rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations with Serbia. They then declared war and began shelling Belgrade. Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> When Russia mobilized, Germany saw it as provocative. Despite Russia's claim that it was responding to the events in Serbia and not Germany, Germany dismissed this and mobilized as well. Later, France, allied with Russia, also mobilized.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> On 29 October 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered the war by launching a naval raid on Russian ports.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":11" /> Bulgaria joined the Central Powers last, which it did in October 1915 by declaring war on Serbia.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Main member states
[edit]At the start of the war, the Central Powers consisted of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Ottoman Empire joined later in 1914, followed by the Tsardom of Bulgaria in 1915.<ref name=":4" />
| Nation | Date of entry |
|---|---|
| Template:Flagicon Austro-Hungarian Empire | 28 July 1914 |
| Template:Flag | 1 August 1914 |
| Template:Flag | 2 August 1914, announced 29 October 1914 |
| Template:Flag | 14 October 1915 |
German Empire
[edit]Template:Main Template:See also
War justifications
[edit]
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In early July 1914, in the aftermath of the assassination of Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and faced with the prospect of war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, Kaiser Wilhelm II and the German government informed the Austro-Hungarian government that Germany would uphold its alliance with Austria-Hungary and defend it from possible Russian intervention if a war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia took place.<ref name="Cashman, Greg 2007. P57">Template:Cite book</ref> When Russia enacted a general mobilization, Germany viewed the act as provocative.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:RP The Russian government promised Germany that its general mobilization did not mean preparation for war with Germany but was a reaction to the tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.<ref name=":6" />Template:RP The German government regarded the Russian promise of no war with Germany to be nonsense in light of its general mobilization, and Germany, in turn, mobilized for war.<ref name=":6" />Template:RP On 1 August, Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia stating that since both Germany and Russia were in a state of military mobilization, an effective state of war existed between the two countries.<ref name=":6" />Template:RP Later that day, France, an ally of Russia, declared a state of general mobilization.<ref name=":6" />Template:RP
In August 1914, Germany attacked Russia, citing Russian aggression as demonstrated by the mobilization of the Russian army, which had resulted in Germany mobilizing in response.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
After Germany declared war on Russia, France, with its alliance with Russia, prepared a general mobilization in expectation of war. On 3 August 1914, Germany responded to this action by declaring war on France.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Germany, facing a two-front war, enacted what was known as the Schlieffen Plan, which involved German armed forces moving through Belgium and swinging south into France and towards the French capital of Paris. This plan was hoped to quickly gain victory against the French and allow German forces to concentrate on the Eastern Front. Belgium was a neutral country and would not accept German forces crossing its territory. Germany disregarded Belgian neutrality and invaded the country to launch an offensive towards Paris. This caused Great Britain to declare war against the German Empire, as the action violated the Treaty of London that both nations signed in 1839 guaranteeing Belgian neutrality.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Subsequently, several states declared war on Germany in late August 1914, with Italy declaring war on Germany in August 1916,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> the United States in April 1917,<ref>McDuffie, Jerome; Piggrem, Gary Wayne; Woodworth, Steven E. (2005). U.S. History Super Review. Piscataway, NJ: Research & Education Association. p. 418. Template:ISBN.</ref> and Greece in July 1917.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Colonies and dependencies
[edit]Europe
[edit]The German Empire had incorporated the province of Alsace-Lorraine, after successfully defeating France in the Franco-Prussian War. However, the province was still claimed by French revanchists,<ref>Seager, Frederic H. (1969). "The Alsace-Lorraine Question in France, 1871–1914". in Charles K. Warner, ed., From the Ancien Régime to the Popular Front, pp. 111–126.</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> leading to its return to France at the Treaty of Versailles.<ref name="Grandhomme-2008-11-retour">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Africa
[edit]The German Empire was late to colonization, only beginning overseas expansion in the 1870s and 1880s. Colonization was opposed by much of the government, including chancellor Otto von Bismarck, but it became a colonial power after participating in the Berlin Conference. Then, private companies were founded and began settling parts of Africa, the Pacific, and China. Later these groups became German protectorates and colonies.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Cameroon was a German colony existing from 1884 until its complete occupation in 1915. It was ceded to France as a League of Nations Mandate at the war's end.<ref name=":7">Template:Cite journal</ref>
German East Africa was founded in 1885 and expanded to include modern-day Tanzania (except Zanzibar), Rwanda, Burundi, and parts of Mozambique. It was the only German colony to not be fully conquered during the war, with resistance by commander Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck lasting until November 1918. Later it was surrendered to the Allies in 1919 and split between the Belgian Congo, Portuguese Mozambique, and the newly founded colony of Tanganyika.<ref name="Ends">Template:Cite book</ref>
South West Africa, modern-day Namibia, came under German rule in 1885 and was absorbed into South Africa following its invasion in 1915.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Togoland, now part of Ghana, was made a German protectorate in 1884. However, after a swift campaign, it was occupied by the Allies in 1915 and divided between French Togoland and British Togoland.<ref name="Martin">Template:Cite book</ref>
Asia
[edit]The Jiaozhou Bay Leased Territory was a German dependency in East Asia leased from China in 1898.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Japanese forces occupied it following the Siege of Tsingtao.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The Austrian Empire had a foreign concession in Tianjin which was swiftly invaded by China in 1917. The German concessions in Tianjin and Hankou were also invaded.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Pacific
[edit]German New Guinea was a German protectorate in the Pacific. It was occupied by Australian forces in 1914.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
German Samoa had been a German protectorate since the Tripartite Convention.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It was occupied by the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in 1914.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Austro-Hungarian Empire
[edit]Template:Main Template:See also
War justifications
[edit]Austria-Hungary regarded the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand as having been orchestrated with the assistance of Serbia.<ref name="Cashman, Greg 2007. P57" /> The country viewed the assassination as setting a dangerous precedent of encouraging the country's South Slav population to rebel and threaten to tear apart the multinational country.<ref name=":6" />Template:RP Austria-Hungary sent a formal ultimatum to Serbia demanding a full-scale investigation of Serbian government complicity in the assassination and complete compliance by Serbia in agreeing to the terms demanded by Austria-Hungary.<ref name="Cashman, Greg 2007. P57" /> Serbia submitted to accept most of the demands. However, Austria-Hungary viewed this as insufficient and used this lack of full compliance to justify military intervention.<ref name="Cashman, Greg 2007. P57" /> These demands have been viewed as a diplomatic cover for an inevitable Austro-Hungarian declaration of war on Serbia.<ref name="Cashman, Greg 2007. P57" />
Russia had warned Austria-Hungary that the Russian government would not tolerate Austria-Hungary invading Serbia.<ref name="Cashman, Greg 2007. P57" /> However, with Germany supporting Austria-Hungary's actions, the Austro-Hungarian government hoped that Russia would not intervene and that the conflict with Serbia would remain a regional conflict.<ref name="Cashman, Greg 2007. P57" />
Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia resulted in Russia declaring war on the country, and Germany, in turn, declared war on Russia, setting off the beginning of the clash of alliances that resulted in the World War.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Territory
[edit]Austria-Hungary was internally divided into two states with their own governments, joined through the Habsburg throne. Austria, also known as Cisleithania, contained various duchies and principalities but also the Kingdom of Bohemia,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> the Kingdom of Dalmatia,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Hungary (Transleithania) was composed of the Kingdom of Hungary<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In Bosnia and Herzegovina, sovereign authority was shared by both Austria and Hungary.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Ottoman Empire
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War justifications
[edit]The Ottoman Empire joined the war on the side of the Central Powers in November 1914. The Ottoman Empire had gained strong economic connections with Germany through the Berlin-to-Baghdad railway project that was still incomplete at the time.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Ottoman Empire made a formal alliance with Germany signed on 2 August 1914.<ref name="Afflerbach, Holger 2012.">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:RP The alliance treaty expected that the Ottoman Empire would become involved in the conflict in a short amount of time.<ref name="Afflerbach, Holger 2012." />Template:RP However, for the first several months of the war, the Ottoman Empire maintained neutrality though it allowed a German naval squadron to enter and stay near the strait of Bosphorus.<ref name="Kent, Mary 1998. P119">Template:Cite book</ref> Ottoman officials informed the German government that the country needed time to prepare for conflict.<ref name="Kent, Mary 1998. P119" /> Germany provided financial aid and weapons shipments to the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="Afflerbach, Holger 2012." />Template:RP
After pressure escalated from the German government demanding that the Ottoman Empire fulfill its treaty obligations, or else Germany would expel the country from the alliance and terminate economic and military assistance, the Ottoman government entered the war with the recently acquired cruisers from Germany, along with their own navy, launching a naval raid on the Russian ports of Odessa, Sevastopol, Novorossiysk, Feodosia, and Yalta,<ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":11">Template:Cite web</ref> thus engaging in military action in accordance with its alliance obligations with Germany. Shortly after, the Triple Entente declared war on the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="Afflerbach, Holger 2012." />Template:RP
Bulgaria
[edit]War justifications
[edit]
After Bulgaria's defeat in July 1913 at the hands of Serbia, Greece and Romania, it signed a treaty of defensive alliance with the Ottoman Empire on 19 August 1914.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Bulgaria was the last country to join the Central Powers, which it did in October 1915 by declaring war on Serbia.<ref name=":3" /> It invaded Serbia in conjunction with German and Austro-Hungarian forces.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Bulgaria held claims on the region of Vardar Macedonia then held by Serbia following the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and the Treaty of Bucharest (1913).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> As a condition of entering the war on the side of the Central Powers, Bulgaria was granted the right to reclaim that territory.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Richard C. Hall, "Bulgaria in the First World War". Historian 73.2 (2011): 300–315.</ref>
Co-belligerents
[edit]
South African Republic
[edit]In opposition to offensive operations by Union of South Africa, which had joined the war, Boer army officers of what is now known as the Maritz Rebellion "refounded" the South African Republic in September 1914. Germany assisted the rebels, with some operating in and out of the German colony of German South-West Africa. The rebels were all defeated or captured by South African government forces by 4 February 1915.<ref>T. R. H. Davenport, "The South African Rebellion, 1914." English Historical Review 78.306 (1963): 73–94, Template:JSTOR.</ref>
Senussi Order
[edit]
The Senussi Order was a Muslim political-religious tariqa (Sufi order) and clan in Libya, previously under Ottoman control, which had been lost to Italy in 1912.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 1915, they were courted by the Ottoman Empire and Germany, and Grand Senussi Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi declared jihad and attacked the Italians in Libya and the British in Egypt in the Senussi Campaign.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Sultanate of Darfur
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In 1915, the Sultanate of Darfur renounced allegiance to the Sudanese government and aligned with the Ottomans. They were able to contact them via the Senussi. Prior to this they were a British ally. The Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition preemptively invaded to prevent an attack on Sudan.<ref name=":10" /> A small force was sent after the sultan and he was killed in action in November 1916.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The invasion ended with an Anglo-Egyptian victory in November 1916.<ref name=":10">Template:Cite book</ref>
Zaian Confederation
[edit]The Zaian Confederation began to fight against France in the Zaian War to prevent French expansion into Morocco.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The fighting lasted from 1914 and continued after the First World War ended, to 1921. The Central Powers (mainly the Germans) began to attempt to incite unrest to hopefully divert French resources from Europe.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Dervish State
[edit]
The Dervish State fought against the British, Ethiopian, Italian, and French Empires between 1896 and 1925.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> During World War I, the Dervish State received many supplies from the German and Ottoman Empires to carry on fighting the Allies. However, looting from other Somali tribes in the Korahe raid eventually led to its collapse in 1925.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="kings coll1">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Client states
[edit]Both the Ottomans and Germans had client states, they are listed below.
Nations supported by the Central Powers
[edit]States listed in this section were not officially members of the Central Powers. Still, during the war, they cooperated with one or more Central Powers members on a level that makes their neutrality disputable.
Ethiopia
[edit]
The Ethiopian Empire was officially neutral throughout World War I but widely suspected of sympathy for the Central Powers between 1915 and 1916. At the time, Ethiopia was one of only two fully independent states in Africa (the other being Liberia) and a major power in the Horn of Africa. Its ruler, Lij Iyasu, was widely suspected of harbouring pro-Islamic sentiments and being sympathetic to the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The German Empire also attempted to reach out to Iyasu, dispatching several unsuccessful expeditions to the region to attempt to encourage it to collaborate in an Arab Revolt-style uprising in East Africa. One of the unsuccessful expeditions was led by Leo Frobenius, a celebrated ethnographer and personal friend of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Under Iyasu's directions, Ethiopia probably supplied weapons to the Muslim Dervish rebels during the Somaliland Campaign of 1915 to 1916, indirectly helping the Central Powers' cause.<ref name=EthiopiaBBC>Template:Cite news</ref>
The Allies jointly pressured the aristocracy for the designated emperor's removal on the 10th of September, 1916 stating he was a threat to both the Allies and Ethiopia.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Fearing the rising influence of Iyasu and the Ottoman Empire, the Christian nobles of Ethiopia conspired against Iyasu. Iyasu was first excommunicated by the Ethiopian Orthodox Patriarch and eventually deposed in a coup d'état on 27 September 1916. A less pro-Ottoman regent, Ras Tafari Makonnen, was installed on the throne.<ref name=EthiopiaBBC/>
Liechtenstein
[edit]
Liechtenstein was officially neutral throughout World War I, though the general population and government was supportive of the Central Powers, particularly Austria-Hungary, with which the two countries had been in a customs union since 1852. However, from September 1914 food deliveries from Austria-Hungary began to decrease, which quickly soured the initial war support.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref> By 1916 all food deliveries from Austria-Hungary had ceased, which forced Liechtenstein to seek closer ties with Switzerland in order to ensure food deliveries continued.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> From 1916, Liechtenstein was embargoed by the Entente countries due to its connections with the Central Powers; this caused mass unemployment in the country.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The government remained sympathetic to the Central Powers until 7 November 1918, when the November 1918 Liechtenstein putsch took place and a new government took power.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref>
Upper Asir
[edit]Upper Asir, a sheikdom in Arabia, revolted away from Asir in 1916, possibly with Hejazi aid.<ref name=":8">Template:Cite book</ref> It was led by Hassan bin Ali al-Aidh.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It was then partitioned between the Saudi and the Idrisi on 30 August 1920.<ref name=":8" />
Kingdom of Greece
[edit]The Kingdom of Greece was in a political dispute with Venizelists. The Central Powers supported the royalists until King Constantine's abdication in 1917.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Romania
[edit]Following their armistice with the Central Powers, Romania was involved in the Russian Civil War against both the Whites and the Reds. Romania fought alongside the Central Powers until it rejoined the war against them on November 10, 1918.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Kelantan
[edit]Kelantanese rebels were supported by the Ottoman and German Empires during their anti-colonial uprising against the British Empire in 1915.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Non-state combatants
[edit]Other movements supported the efforts of the Central Powers for their own reasons, such as the radical Irish Nationalists who launched the Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916; they referred to their "gallant allies in Europe". However, most Irish Nationalists supported the British and allied war effort up until 1916, when the Irish political landscape was changing. In 1914, Józef Piłsudski was permitted by Germany and Austria-Hungary to form independent Polish legions. Piłsudski wanted his legions to help the Central Powers defeat Russia and then side with France and the UK and win the war with them.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Below is a list of these non-state combatants.
Armistice and treaties
[edit]Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on 29 September 1918, following a successful Allied advance in Macedonia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Ottoman Empire followed suit on 30 October 1918 in the face of British and Arab gains in Palestine and Syria.<ref name="fromkin">Template:Cite book</ref> Austria and Hungary concluded ceasefires separately during the first week of November following the disintegration of the Habsburg Empire and the Italian offensive at Vittorio Veneto;<ref>Armistice Convention with Austria-Hungary</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Germany signed the armistice ending the war on the morning of 11 November 1918 after the Hundred Days Offensive, and a succession of advances by New Zealand, Australian, Canadian, Belgian, British, French and US forces in north-eastern France and Belgium. There was no unified treaty ending the war; the Central Powers were dealt with in separate treaties.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
| Country | Date |
|---|---|
| Template:Flagicon Bulgaria | Template:Dts |
| Template:Flagicon Ottoman Empire | Template:Dts |
| Template:FlagiconAustria-Hungary | Template:Dts |
| Template:Flagicon Germany | Template:Dts |
| Country | Treaty of | Results | Date signed |
|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Flagicon Germany | Versailles | Germany was required to demilitarize the Rhineland, to reduce their army to 100,000 men, and the navy to 15,000 sailors, and to pay 132 billion gold marks (US$33 billion). Tanks, submarines, and an air force were all forbidden. | Template:Dts |
| Template:Flagicon Austria | Saint-Germain | Template:Dts | |
| Template:Flagicon Bulgaria | Neuilly | Template:Dts | |
| Template:Flagicon Hungary | Trianon | Template:Dts | |
| Template:Flagicon Ottoman Empire/Turkey | Sèvres/Lausanne | The Treaty of Sèvres caused resentment among the Turkish populace of the Ottoman Empire and resulted in the outbreak of the Turkish War of Independence, after which the Treaty of Lausanne was signed. | Template:Dts/Template:Dts |
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A postcard depicting the flags of the Central Powers' countries
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Poster for a 1916 charity bazaar raising funds for widows and orphans of the Central Power states
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The leaders of the Central Powers in 1914
Leaders
[edit]
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Statistics
[edit]
| Country | Population (millions) |
Area (million km2) |
GDP ($ billion) |
GDP per capita ($) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Flag (1914) | Mainland | 67.0 | 0.5 | 244.3 | 3,648 |
| Colonies | 10.7 | 3.0 | 6.4 | 601 | |
| Total | 77.7 | 3.5 | 250.7 | 3,227 | |
| Template:Flagicon Austria-Hungary (1914) | 50.6 | 0.6 | 100.5 | 1,980 | |
| Template:Flag (1914) | 23.0 | 1.8 | 25.3 | 1,100 | |
| Template:Flag (1915) | 4.8 | 0.1 | 7.4 | 1,527 | |
| Total | 156.1 | 6.0 | 383.9 | 2,459 | |
| Allies, total, November 1914 | 793.3 | 67.5 | 1,096.5 | ||
| UK, France and Russia only | 259.0 | 22.6 | 622.8 | ||
| Country | Mobilized | Killed in action | Wounded | Missing in action |
Total casualties |
Casualties as % of total force mobilized |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Flag | 13,250,000 | 2,037,000 (13.65%) | 6,267,143 | 1,152,800 | 9,456,943 | 71% |
| Template:Flag | 7,800,000 | 1,494,200 (11.82%) | 3,620,000 | 2,200,000 | 7,314,200 | 94% |
| Template:Flag | 3,056,000 | 771,884 (10.84%) | 763,163 | 250,000 | 1,785,000 | 60% |
| Template:Flag | 1,200,000 | 75,844 (6.32%) | 153,390 | 27,029 | 255,263 | 21% |
| Total | 25,257,321 | 4,378,928 | 10,803,533 | 3,629,829 | 18,812,290 | 75% |
See also
[edit]- Central Powers intervention in the Russian Civil War
- Color books, transcripts of official documents released by each nation early in the war
- Diplomatic history of World War I
- Home front during World War I covering all major countries
- International relations (1814–1919)
- Axis powers
- Kaiserreich (disambiguation)
- Spa Conferences (First World War)
Footnotes
[edit]References
[edit]Further reading
[edit]- Akin, Yigit. When the War Came Home: The Ottomans' Great War and the Devastation of an Empire (2018)
- Aksakal, Mustafa. The Ottoman Road to War in 1914: The Ottoman Empire and the First World War (2010).
- Brandenburg, Erich. (1927) From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870–1914 (1927) online.
- Clark, Christopher. The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2013)
- Craig, Gordon A. "The World War I alliance of the Central Powers in retrospect: The military cohesion of the alliance". Journal of Modern History 37.3 (1965): 336–344.
- Dedijer, Vladimir. The Road to Sarajevo, comprehensive history of the assassination with detailed material on the Austrian Empire and Serbia. (1966)
- Fay, Sidney B. The Origins of the World War (2 vols in one. 2nd ed. 1930). online, passim
- Gooch, G. P. Before The War Vol II pp. 373–447 on Berchtold (1939)
- Hall, Richard C. "Bulgaria in the First World War". Historian 73.2 (2011): 300–315. online Template:Webarchive
- Hamilton, Richard F. and Holger H. Herwig, eds. Decisions for War, 1914–1917 (2004), scholarly essays on Serbia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, Britain, Japan, Ottoman Empire, Italy, United States, Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece.
- Herweg, Holger H. The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918 (2009).
- Herweg, Holger H., and Neil Heyman. Biographical Dictionary of World War I (1982).
- Hubatsch, Walther. Germany and the Central Powers in the World War, 1914– 1918 (1963) online Template:Webarchive
- Jarausch, Konrad Hugo. "Revising German History: Bethmann-Hollweg Revisited". Central European History 21#3 (1988): 224–243, historiography Template:JSTOR
- Pribram, A. F. Austrian Foreign Policy, 1908–18 (1923) pp 68–128.
- Rich, Norman. Great Power Diplomacy: 1814–1914 (1991), comprehensive survey
- Schmitt, Bernadotte E. The coming of the war, 1914 (2 vol 1930) comprehensive history online vol 1; online vol 2, esp vol 2 ch 20 pp 334–382
- Strachan, Hew. The First World War: Volume I: To Arms (2003).
- Tucker, Spencer C., ed. The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1996) 816pp
- Watson, Alexander. Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I (2014)
- Wawro, Geoffrey. A Mad Catastrophe: The Outbreak of World War I and the Collapse of the Habsburg Empire (2014)
- Williamson, Samuel R. Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War (1991)
- Zametica, John. Folly and malice: the Habsburg empire, the Balkans and the start of World War One (London: Shepheard–Walwyn, 2017). 416 pp.
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