Boley, Oklahoma
Template:Use mdy dates Template:Infobox settlement Boley is a town in Okfuskee County, Oklahoma, United States. The population was 1,091 at the 2020 Census.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Boley was incorporated in 1905 as a predominantly Black pioneer town with persons having Native American ancestry among its citizens.<ref>(Decatur-Thomas, 1989)</ref> Of the 50 identifiable Black towns established in Oklahoma between 1865 to 1920, Boley is one of only 13 still in existence.<ref name="simpson" /><ref>Oklahoma Historical Society. "All Black Towns" retrieved February 14, 2025.</ref>
Boley is currently home to barbeque equipment maker, Smokaroma, Inc, and the John Lilley Correctional Center. The Boley Public School District closed the high school in 2007 and the elementary in 2010<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> due to declining enrollment. The Boley Historic District is a National Historic Landmark.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Currently Boley hosts The Annual Boley Rodeo & Bar-B-Que Festival.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
History
[edit]Background
[edit]Creek Freedmen in the Indian Territory, who were the descendents of Black slaves held by the Creek tribe and alloted 160 acres of land each as a result of the Dawes Commission, set up independent townships, of which Boley was one.<ref name="simpson">Template:Cite web</ref> The town was established on land owned by Abigail Barnett, the daughter of a Creek Freedman.<ref name="EOHC-Boley">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="stuckey" />
As Boley and its surrounding area already possessed a well-established and independent Black community, many Black Southerners who eventually emigrated there perceived the town as a safe haven from the South's limited economic opportunities, white supremacist paramilitaries (e.g. White League, Red Shirts, and the Ku Klux Klan), and discriminatory laws re-imposed at the collapse of Reconstruction.<ref name="stuckey" /><ref name="gates">Template:Cite book</ref>
Town founding
[edit]
The principal founder of Boley was Thomas M. Haynes.<ref name="stuckey">Template:Cite journal</ref> Lake Moore, a white speculator, contributed the initial $500 investment needed to lease Barnett's land for five years. Another influential figure was the town's namesake, J. B. Boley, a white official of the Fort Smith & Western Railroad who oversaw the development of a depot in the middle of Boley.<ref name="EOHC-Boley"/><ref name="horcher">Template:Cite web</ref> After being approved for a post office two months prior in July, the town officially opened for settlement on September 26, 1903.<ref name="stuckeydiss">Template:Cite thesis</ref>
One of the most influential early settlers in Boley was David J. Turner, a businessman who would, besides serving as town mayor and councilman on multiple occasions, also work as a bank president and pharmacist.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> Another important settler was Hilliard Taylor, who developed a thriving cotton ginning business.<ref name="stuckey" />
The development of the railroad brought traffic and allowed agricultural land to be more profitably used as a townsite. Property owned by the Barnett family, among other Creek Freedmen, was midway between Paden and Castle, and ideal for a station stop. With the approval of the railroad management, Boley, Creek Nation, Indian Territory was incorporated in 1905. During the early part of the 20th century, Boley became a regional business hub and one of the wealthiest Black towns in the US. It boasted two banks,<ref name="BlackHistory">Template:Cite web</ref> including the first nationally-chartered Black-owned bank, three cotton gins,<ref name="BlackHistory"/> its own electric company,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> a movie theater, hotels, and multiple legal and dentistry practices.<ref name="BWST" /> The town had over 4,000 residents by 1911, and was the home of two colleges: Creek-Seminole College, and Methodist Episcopal College. The Masonic Lodge was called "the tallest building between Okmulgee and Oklahoma City," when it was built in 1912.<ref name="EOHC-Boley"/>
O. H. Bradley and The Boley Progress
[edit]Template:Quote box One of the town's largest weekly newspapers, The Boley Progress, was established in 1905. It promoted the town to African Americans in the American South, and specialized in reporting Southern news.<ref name="stuckey" /><ref name="stuckeydiss" /> In its debut issue, the Progress coined Boley the "Haven of the Negro."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> An annual subscription initially cost $1.
Under the editorship of Oniel H. Bradley, the motto of the Progress was "All Men Up, Not Some Down."<ref name="stuckeywomen">Template:Cite book</ref> Bradley promoted an "emancipationist vision" of Boley, portraying the town as a place where Black southerners could escape discrimination and finally enjoy a real freedom to serve as "business men, farmers, merchants, and wage workers," free from the antagonism of hostile white mobs.<ref name="stuckeywomen" /> Additionally, Bradley believed that flourishing and well-governed black towns like Boley would help alleviate the nation's "racial problem" and counter negative stereotypes of Black Americans.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> Subscribers across the South were informed about Boley's local economy, population growth, political elections, investment opportunities, and more. As a result of his promotional efforts, Bradley attracted Black settlers from diverse social backgrounds, ranging from farmers to college-educated professionals.<ref name="stuckeydiss" />
In the fall of 1905, Bradley's Progress persuaded Joe P. Thompson, a devout reader from Rusk, Texas, to organize an emigration of approximately fifty Black families from his community to the area around Boley.<ref name=stuckey /> Reflecting upon Boley's ballooning growth in its initial years, early settler Hallie Smith Jones remarked that "people came to Boley by train loads. In some instances eight and ten families would alight from the same train. Their luggage would fill the depot platform and would be piled six and seven feet high."<ref name="stuckeydiss" />
Womanhood in Boley
[edit]
Black women served many valuable roles within the town, such as entrepreneurs, farmers, schoolteachers, tours guides for prospective settlers, and, of course, as loyal wives and mothers rearing future generations of Black children.<ref name = "stuckeywomen" />
Single-sex (women-exclusive) organizations committed to progressive principles sprouted up in Boley. For instance, the Ladies Industrial Club, founded in October 1908, was involved in various community service projects, playing a significant role in the creation of the town's public library.<ref name ="stuckeywomen" /> California M. Taylor, who was renowned for her work as a notary public and later as a pharmacist, was an influential leader in Boley's NAACP branch.<ref name ="stuckeywomen" />
Black self-sufficiency
[edit]
Booker T. Washington visited Boley in 1905, and was so impressed that he included Boley in his speeches; black-towns like Boley embodied "the path of advancement," as they provided opportunities for self-governance, moral upliftment, and the development of useful leadership and industrial skills.<ref name="crockett">Template:Cite web</ref> However, he also worried that separation from whites, if carried to the extreme, would be detrimental to black communities in the long-run. George Washington Carver once called Boley "the most progressive black town in the U.S."<ref name="horcher" />
Boley became notorious for its sundown town signage, subverting whites-only norms, for reading, "White man, don't let the sun set on you here."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The sign was removed by federal agents in 1924.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Disenfranchisement and racial tensions
[edit]Template:Further Template:Quote box Upon becoming the 46th U.S. state on November 16, 1907, Jim Crow segregation laws were added to Oklahoma's state constitution, largely due to the efforts of white Democrat William H. Murray<ref name="stuckey" /><ref name="luckerson">Template:Cite web</ref> Shortly after statehood came disenfranchisement, most significantly through the passing of a "grandfather clause" which stipulated that anyone whose ancestors lacked the right to vote prior to 1866 (i.e. slaves) would be subject to a literacy test.<ref name="luckerson" /> Historically, the solidly-Republican black population of Boley held the balance of political power in Okfuscee County, as nearby white towns were split between the two parties.<ref name="crockett" />
In mid-1911, within the tense atmosphere generated by the lynching of Laura and L.D. Nelson in the nearby town of Okemah, the county seat of Okfuskee County, a rumor circulated that the black residents in and around Boley were arming themselves to conduct a retaliatory attack.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> During the night of the predicted engagement, the white citizens of Okemah developed an elaborate defense system and prepared for battle. However, no fighting ever occurred, presumably because Boley's black community had hunkered down themselves to protect their town.<ref name="stuckeydiss" />
In October 1911, a "State Convention of Black Men and Women" was hosted in Boley, organized by local black clergymen.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> The conservative, central message of the meeting was to advocate to neighboring white communities the specific distinction between Blacks who possess "respectable standing in his community" and those who embody the "vicious element of the race."<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> In an attempt to sooth racial tensions and prevent future mob violence, the convention sought to convince white audiences that the law-abiding Black middle-class would be willing to join arms with their white neighbors in condemning the lowly Black "criminal."
1932 bank raid of Pretty Boy Floyd's gang
[edit]
In November 1932, three members belonging to the gang of the notorious outlaw Pretty Boy Floyd attempted to rob Boley's Farmers and Merchants Bank, but were thwarted by the town's citizens.<ref name="samepassage">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="apnews">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Primeaux">Template:Cite web</ref> Floyd had previously warned his men not to attack Boley due to its residents being well-armed, but the interracial trio ignored the message.<ref name="apnews" /><ref name="stuckeydiss" />
George Birdwell, the trio's ringleader, and C.C. Patterson broke into the bank while Charles "Pete" Glass, a Black man who knew the town, waited in the getaway vehicle.<ref name="Raymond">Template:Cite web</ref> While Birdwell and Patterson emptied the register of all cash, the bank's president, David Turner, who was on duty at the time, sounded the alarm to alert the townspeople.<ref name="samepassage" /><ref name="Primeaux" /> Herbert C. McCormick, an assistant cashier who had been hiding in the bank vault with a rifle, then proceeded to shoot Birdwell.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> Birdwell managed to fire multiple shots into Turner before collapsing onto the bank's floor.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> However, the chronology of what transpired inside the bank is not completely clear, as some accounts contend that an infuriated Birdwell shot Turner after discovering that he had pulled the alarm, which then caused McCormick to open fire on Birdwell.<ref name="samepassage" /><ref name="savage">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Patterson shuffled out of the bank and attempted to flee to the getaway vehicle, but he had now come face-to-face with Boley's armed citizenry, who had grabbed whatever weapons they could find, including guns, screwdrivers, and tools.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /><ref name="Raymond" /> Though Patterson was "riddled with bullets," he miraculously survived and was arrested by Boley sheriff Joseph Langston McCormick, the brother of the bank worker who had shot Birdwell.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /><ref name="Raymond" /> Glass, hearing the gunfire, had exited the car and made his way towards the bank to help his fellow bandits, but upon seeing Patterson collapse from his wounds, desperately scrambled back towards the vehicle.<ref name="savage" /> While attempting to drive away, Glass was shot dead. The townspeople had successfully foiled the attempted heist. Template:Quote box Tragically, David Turner, who had dedicated decades of his life towards Boley's development, perished in the arms of his wife as he was in transit to the hospital in Okemah.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> Now the Governor of Oklahoma, William H. Murray, the very same man who sought to destroy the independence of Black-towns like Boley decades prior, sent his official condolences; thousands of people from around the state went to Boley to attend Turner's funeral.<ref name="stuckeydiss" /> The Farmers and Merchants Bank was closed shortly thereafter.
As historian William Savage Jr. notes, several conflicting narratives of the robbery attempt had unfortunately sprung up in the ensuing decades, demonstrating the shortcomings of relying upon human recollection.<ref name="savage" /> The most egregious differences in accounts relate to how Birdwell died (including how many times he was shot and by whom) and the details about what specific gun Herbert McCormick used.<ref name="savage" />
Decline
[edit]Boley's development paralleled that of the Fort Smith & Western Railway, which went bankrupt during the Great Depression and ceased operations in 1939. Additionally, Boley's economy was heavily dependent on cotton farming, which often created long-lasting debt for its producers and, from the 1920s, suffered from recurrent boll weevil infestations.<ref name="simpson" /><ref name="crockett" /> The Dust Bowl of the 1930s also encouraged families to move out of Boley.<ref name="stuckey" /> As economic opportunities dried up, some of Boley's black population migrated to Canada and Western Africa, but most ended up moving to larger cities in search of better job prospects.<ref name="crockett" /> Before World War II, Boley's population had declined to about 700.<ref name="EOHC-Boley"/> With the Second Great Migration underway, by 1960 most of the population had left for other urban areas.<ref name="books.google.com">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> So far the New Great Migration has not benefited Boley. However, Boley remains one of the state's few remaining historic African-American towns and its 2020 population of 1,091 is a 258% improvement compared to its population of 423 just four decades prior.<ref name="EOHC-Boley"/><ref name="BlackHistory"/>
Timeline
[edit]
1897, by this time Oklahoma law required black children to be educated separately from white children<ref name=crow>Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1903 Founding<ref name="EOHC-Boley"/>
- 1905 Booker T. Washington tours the newly incorporated Boley. Newspaper The Boley Progress starts publication.<ref>Boley Progress, Library of Congress</ref>
- 1925, State Training School for Incorrigible Black Boys was located in Boley; it would become the John Lilley Correctional Center.
- 1926 The Boley Progress ceases publication.
- 1932 Armed citizens of Boley thwart a bank robbery attempt by members of Pretty Boy Floyd's gang.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
- 1939 Fort Smith & Western Railroad and Boley go bankrupt.
- 1975 Boley Historic District given landmark status.
Inscription on Oklahoma Historical Society plaque honoring Boley
[edit]Boley, Oklahoma Est. August 1903 - Inc. May 1905 Boley, Creek Nation, I.T., Established as all black town on land of Creek Indian Freedwoman Abigail Barnett. Organized by T.M. Haynes first townsite manager. Named for J.B. Boley, white roadmaster, who convinced Fort Smith & Western Railroad that blacks could govern themselves. This concept soon boosted population to 4,200. Declared National Historic Landmark District by Congress May 15, 1975. Oklahoma Historical Society<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Geography
[edit]Boley is located approximately 13 miles east of Prague and 11 miles west of Okemah on US Highway 62.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of Template:Convert, all land.
Demographics
[edit]2020 census
[edit]| Race / Ethnicity (NH = Non-Hispanic) | Pop 2000<ref name=2000CensusP004>Template:Cite web</ref> | Pop 2010<ref name=2010CensusP2>Template:Cite web</ref> | Template:Partial<ref name=2020CensusP2>Template:Cite web</ref> | % 2000 | % 2010 | Template:Partial |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| White alone (NH) | 393 | 518 | 581 | 34.90% | 43.75% | 53.25% |
| Black or African American alone (NH) | 615 | 463 | 317 | 54.62% | 39.10% | 29.06% |
| Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) | 49 | 70 | 101 | 4.35% | 5.91% | 9.26% |
| Asian alone (NH) | 1 | 1 | 9 | 0.09% | 0.08% | 0.82% |
| Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander alone (NH) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.00% |
| Other race alone (NH) | 1 | 1 | 12 | 0.09% | 0.08% | 1.10% |
| Mixed race or Multiracial (NH) | 32 | 60 | 12 | 2.84% | 5.07% | 1.10% |
| Hispanic or Latino (any race) | 35 | 71 | 59 | 3.11% | 6.00% | 5.41% |
| Total | 1,126 | 1,184 | 1,091 | 100.00% | 100.00% | 100.00% |
2000 census
[edit]As of the census<ref name="GR2" /> of 2000, there were 1,126 people, 136 households, and 79 families residing in the town. The population density was Template:Convert. There were 153 housing units at an average density of Template:Convert. The racial makeup of the town was 35.61% White, 54.71% African American, 4.97% Native American, 0.09% Asian, 1.51% from other races, and 3.11% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.11% of the population.
There were 136 households, out of which 18.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 33.8% were married couples living together, 19.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.9% were non-families. 36.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 3.10.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 7.6% under the age of 18, 9.1% from 18 to 24, 51.0% from 25 to 44, 24.5% from 45 to 64, and 7.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 407.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 490.9 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $16,042, and the median income for a family was $27,500. Males had a median income of $21,875 versus $20,625 for females. The per capita income for the town was $9,304. About 25.0% of families and 40.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 48.5% of those under age 18 and 20.3% of those age 65 or over.
Arts and culture
[edit]Boley Rodeo
[edit]A tradition since 1903, the Boley Rodeo is the longest-running Black rodeo in the United States.<ref name="blacksher" /> The event, which typically takes place around Memorial Day weekend every year, embodies a celebration of Boley's rich history and culture. Karen Ekuban, a community organizer who has been instrumental in revitalizing and promoting the rodeo in recent years, describes the event as "a homecoming for our alumni, their children, and even their children’s children. Every Memorial Day weekend, they know they’re coming home."<ref name="blacksher" />
Boley Historic District
[edit]
Part of Boley was declared as Boley Historic District and a National Historic Landmark in 1975. The District is roughly bounded by Seward Avenue, Walnut and Cedar Streets, and the southern city limits of Boley.<ref name="nhlsum">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="nrhpinv2">Template:Cite web</ref>
In film
[edit]Rodeo legend Bill Pickett, credited as the inventor or bulldogging, shot his film The Bull-Dogger, as well as his film The Crimson Skull, at Boley in 1922.<ref name=Films>Template:Cite web</ref>
Government
[edit]In the 2016 presidential election, the city gave over 78% of the vote to the Democratic Party candidate Hillary Clinton.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Notable people
[edit]- Cardell Camper, major league baseball player
- Pumpsie Green - baseball player, first African American to play for the Boston Red Sox
- Zenobia Powell Perry - composer<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In popular culture
[edit]The Oklahoma Historical Society created the touring exhibition "Thirteen All-Black Towns of Oklahoma," highlighting Boley and 12 additional towns that have survived into the 21st century. Preview materials note: "When E. P. McCabe came to Oklahoma in the 1889 Land Run his vision was to create an All-Black state. Although that never materialized, McCabe and others succeeded in establishing All-Black towns. Nowhere else, neither in the Deep South nor the Far West, did so many African American men and women come together to create, occupy, and govern their own communities. Boley, Brooksville, Clearview, Grayson, Langston, Lima, Red Bird, Rentiesville, Taft, Tatums, Tullahassee, Summit, and Vernon are the towns highlighted in this exhibit."<ref>"Thirteen All-Black Towns of Oklahoma Exhibit at the Stillwater History Museum" http://www.visitstillwater.org/event/thirteen-all-black-towns-of-oklahoma-exhibit-at-the-stillwater-history-museum/25015/</ref>
Quotations about Boley from Booker T. Washington
[edit]In a 2017 interview, historian Currie Ballard told The Oklahoman: “Boley was once the crown jewel of all the black towns in Oklahoma...Booker T. Washington came to Boley … twice and deemed it the finest black town in the world — and Booker T. Washington had literally been all around the world. Boley, its significance in commerce, its significance in education, parallels no other black town in the nation.” <ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Quotes about Boley attributed to Washington include:
"They have recovered something of the knack for trade that their fore-parents in Africa were famous for".<ref name="books.google.com"/>
"Boley, Indian Territory, is the youngest, most enterprising, and in many ways the most interesting of the Negro towns in the US."<ref>Booker T. Washington papers, V.9 1906-1908 Template:Webarchive</ref>
See also
[edit]- Brooksville, Clearview, Grayson, Langston, Lima, Red Bird, Rentiesville, Summit, Taft, Tatums, Tullahassee, and Vernon, other "All-Black" settlements that were part of the Land Run of 1889.<ref name="EOHC-Boley"/>
References
[edit]Further reading
[edit]- “All Men Up”: Race, Rights, and Power in the All Black Town of Boley, Oklahoma, 1903-1939" by Melissa Stuckey, dissertation, Yale University, 2008
- Decatur-Thomas, C. (1989) Boley: An all black pioneer town and the education of its children. [Dissertation] The University of Akron
External links
[edit]- History of Boley on The African American Registry
- Black heritage sites, Boley Historic District, By Nancy C. Curtis
- Oklahoma Historical Society, Boley
- Template:NHLS url
- Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - All-Black Towns
- Plot of Land, episode 4, "This Arc of Very Fertile Land"
- Online Achive of The Boley Progress (1905-1926)