Robert Bellarmine

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Robert Bellarmine Template:Post-nominals (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx; 4 October 1542 – 17 September 1621) was an Italian Jesuit and a cardinal of the Catholic Church. He was canonized a saint in 1930<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and named Doctor of the Church, one of only 37. He was one of the most important figures in the Counter-Reformation.

Bellarmine was a professor of theology and later rector of the Roman College, and in 1602 became Archbishop of Capua. He supported the reform decrees of the Council of Trent. He is also widely remembered for his role in the Giordano Bruno affair,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> the Galileo affair, and the trial of Friar Fulgenzio Manfredi.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Early life

Robert Bellarmine was born in Montepulciano, the son of noble, albeit impoverished, parents, Vincenzo Bellarmino and his wife Cinzia Cervini, who was the sister of Pope Marcellus II.<ref name="smith">Template:Cite CE1913</ref> As a boy he knew Virgil by heart and composed a number of poems in Italian and Latin. One of his hymns, on Mary Magdalene, is included in the Roman Breviary.

Bellarmine entered the Roman Jesuit novitiate in 1560, remaining in Rome for three years. He was then sent to a Jesuit house at Mondovì, in Piedmont, where he learned Greek. While at Mondovì, he came to the attention of Francesco Adorno, the local Jesuit provincial superior, who sent him to the University of Padua.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Career

Bellarmine's systematic studies of theology began at Padua in 1567 and 1568, where his teachers were adherents of Thomism. In 1569, he was sent to finish his studies at the University of Leuven in Brabant. There he was ordained and obtained a reputation both as a professor and as a preacher. He was the first Jesuit to teach at the university, where the subject of his course was the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas. He was involved in a controversy with Michael Baius on the subject of Grace and free will, and wrote a Hebrew grammar.Template:Sfn His residency in Leuven lasted seven years. In poor health, in 1576 he made a journey to Italy. Here he remained, commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII to lecture on polemical theology in the new Roman College, now known as the Pontifical Gregorian University. Later, he would promote the cause of the beatification of Aloysius Gonzaga, who had been a student at the college during Bellarmine's tenure.<ref name=smith/> His lectures were published under the title De Controversias in four large volumes.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

New duties after 1589

Template:Jesuit Until 1589, Bellarmine was occupied as professor of theology. After the murder in that year of Henry III of France, Pope Sixtus V sent Enrico Caetani as legate to Paris<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> to negotiate with the Catholic League of France, and chose Bellarmine to accompany him as theologian.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> He was in the city during its siege by Henry of Navarre.

Upon the death of Pope Sixtus V in 1590, the Count of Olivares wrote to Philip II of Spain, "Bellarmine ... would not do for a Pope, for he is mindful only of the interests of the Church and is unresponsive to the reasons of princes."<ref name="rice" />

Pope Clement VIII, said of him, "the Church of God had not his equal in learning".<ref name="smith" /> Bellarmine was made rector of the Roman College in 1592, examiner of bishops in 1598, and cardinal in 1599. Immediately after his appointment as Cardinal, Pope Clement made him a Cardinal Inquisitor, in which capacity he served as one of the judges at the trial of Giordano Bruno, and concurred in the decision which condemned Bruno to be burned at the stake as a heretic.<ref>Blackwell (1991, pp. 47–48).</ref>

In 1602 he was made archbishop of Capua. He had written against pluralism and non-residence of bishops within their dioceses. As bishop he put into effect the reforming decrees of the Council of Trent. He received some votes in the 1605 conclaves which elected Pope Leo XI, Pope Paul V, and in 1621 when Pope Gregory XV was elected, but his being a Jesuit counted against him in the judgement of many of the cardinals.<ref name="smith" />

Thomas Hobbes saw Bellarmine in Rome at a service on All Saints Day (1 November) 1614 and, exempting him alone from a general castigation of cardinals, described him as "a little lean old man" who lived "more retired".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Galileo case

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In 1616, on the orders of Paul V, Bellarmine summoned Galileo, notified him of a forthcoming decree of the Congregation of the Index condemning the Copernican doctrine of the mobility of the Earth and the immobility of the Sun, and ordered him to abandon it.<ref>Blackwell (1991, p. 126).

The Vatican archives contain an unsigned copy of a more strongly worded formal injunction purporting to have been served on Galileo shortly after Bellarmine's admonition, ordering him "not to hold, teach, or defend" the condemned doctrine "in any way whatever, either orally or in writing", and threatening him with imprisonment if he refused to obey.

However, whether this injunction was ever properly served on Galileo is a subject of much scholarly disagreement.(Blackwell, 1991, p. 127–128)</ref> Galileo agreed to do so.<ref>Fantoli (2005, p.119). Some scholars have suggested that Galileo's agreement was only obtained after some initial resistance. Otherwise, the formal injunction purporting to have been served on him during his meeting with Bellarmine (see earlier footnote) would have been contrary to the Pope's instructions (Fantoli. 2005, pp.121, 124).</ref>

When Galileo later complained of rumours to the effect that he had been forced to abjure and do penance, Bellarmine wrote out a certificate denying the rumours, stating that Galileo had merely been notified of the decree and informed that, as a consequence of it, the Copernican doctrine could not be "defended or held". Unlike the previously mentioned formal injunction (see earlier footnote), this certificate would have allowed Galileo to continue using and teaching the mathematical content of Copernicus's theory as a purely theoretical device for predicting the apparent motions of the planets.<ref>Blackwell (1991, p.127). Maurice Finocchiaro's English translations of the purported formal injunction, the decree of the Congregation of the Index and Cardinal Bellarmine's certificate are available on-line.</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

According to some of his letters, Cardinal Bellarmine believed that a demonstration for heliocentrism could not be found because it would contradict the unanimous consent of the Fathers' scriptural exegesis, to which the Council of Trent, in 1546,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> defined all Catholics must adhere. In other passages, Bellarmine argued that he did not support the heliocentric model for the lack of evidence of the time ("I will not believe that there is such a demonstration, until it is shown to me").<ref name="letter to Foscarini">Bellarmine's letter of 12 April 1615 to Foscarini, translated in Template:Cite book</ref>

Bellarmine wrote to heliocentrist Paolo Antonio Foscarini in 1615:<ref name="letter to Foscarini"/>

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In 1633, nearly twelve years after Bellarmine's death, Galileo was again called before the Inquisition in this matter. Galileo produced Bellarmine's certificate for his defense at the trial.<ref>Galileo's third deposition (10 May 1633), translated in Template:Cite book</ref>

According to Pierre Duhem and Karl Popper "in one respect, at least, Bellarmine had shown himself a better scientist than Galileo by disallowing the possibility of a "strict proof" of the earth's motion, on the grounds that an astronomical theory merely "saves the appearances" without necessarily revealing what "really happens."<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn, in his book, The Copernican Revolution, after commenting on Cesare Cremonini, who refused to look through Galileo's telescope, wrote:

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Death

Robert Bellarmine retired to Sant'Andrea degli Scozzesi, the Jesuit college of Saint Andrew in Rome. He died on 17 September 1621, aged 78.<ref>Chisholm (1911)</ref> He was buried in the Church of St. Ignatius in Rome.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

File:San Roberto Bellarmino.jpg

16th-century portrait of Saint Robert Bellarmine

Works

Bellarmine's books bear the stamp of their period; the effort for literary elegance (so-called "maraviglia") had given place to a desire to pile up as much material as possible, to embrace the whole field of human knowledge, and incorporate it into theology. His controversial works provoked many replies, and were studied for some decades after his death.Template:Efn At Leuven he made extensive studies in the Church Fathers and scholastic theologians, which gave him the material for his book De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis (Rome, 1613). It was later revised and enlarged by Sirmond, Labbeus, and Casimir Oudin. Bellarmine wrote the preface to the new Sixto-Clementine Vulgate.<ref name=smith/> Bellarmine also prepared for posterity his own commentary on each of the Psalms. An English translation from the Latin was published in 1866.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Dogmatics

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From his research grew Disputationes de controversiis christianae fidei (also called Controversiae), first published at Ingolstadt in 1581–1593. This major work was the earliest attempt to systematize the various religious disputes between Catholics and Protestants. Bellarmine reviewed the issues<ref name="rice">Template:Cite web</ref> and devoted eleven years to it while at the Roman College. In August 1590, Pope Sixtus V decided to place the first volume of the Disputationes on the Index because Bellarmine argued in it that the Pope is not the temporal ruler of the whole world and that temporal rulers do not derive their authority to rule from God but from the consent of the governed. However, Sixtus died before the revised Index was published, and the next Pope, Urban VII, removed the book from the Index during his brief twelve-day reign.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

File:Dottrina cristiana tradotta in lingua arabica.tif

Page of the short catechism of Bellarmine: Dottrina cristiana breve, 1752

In 1597–98, he published a Catechism in two versions (Template:Interlanguage link and Template:Interlanguage link) which has been translated into 60 languages and was the official teaching of the Catholic Church for centuries.<ref>Introduction by Bishop Athanasius Schneider to Template:Cite book</ref>

Venetian Interdict

Template:Main Under Pope Paul V (reigned 1605–1621), a major conflict arose between Venice and the Papacy. Paolo Sarpi, as spokesman for the Republic of Venice, protested against the papal interdict, and reasserted the principles of the Council of Constance and of the Council of Basel, denying the pope's authority in secular matters. Bellarmine wrote three rejoinders to the Venetian theologians, and may have warned Sarpi of an impending murderous attack, when in September 1607, an unfrocked friar and brigand by the name of Rotilio Orlandini planned to kill Sarpi for the sum of 8,000 crowns.<ref>The Cambridge Modern History, Volume 4: Fra Paolo Sarpi (Cambridge University Press 1906), p. 671</ref> Orlandini's plot was discovered, and when he and his accomplices crossed from Papal into Venetian territory they were arrested.<ref>Robertson, Alexander (1893) Fra Paolo Sarpi: the Greatest of the Venetians, London: Sampson, Low, Marston & Co. pp. 114–117</ref>

Allegiance oath controversy and papal authority

Template:Further Bellarmine also became involved in controversy with King James I of England. From a point of principle for English Catholics, this debate drew in figures from much of Western Europe.<ref>W. B. Patterson, James VI and I and the Reunion of Christendom (1997), pp. 76–77.</ref> It raised the profile of both protagonists, King James as a champion of his own restricted Calvinist Protestantism, and Bellarmine for Tridentine Catholicism.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Devotional works

During his retirement, he wrote several short books intended to help ordinary people in their spiritual life: De ascensione mentis in Deum per scalas rerum creatorum opusculum (The Mind's Ascent to God by the Ladder of Created Things; 1614) which was translated into English as Jacob's Ladder (1638) without acknowledgement by Template:Ill,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Art of Dying Well (1619) (in Latin, English translation under this title by Edward Coffin),<ref>Template:CathEncy</ref> and The Seven Words on the Cross.

Canonization and final resting place

Robert Bellarmine was canonized by Pope Pius XI in 1930;<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> the following year he was declared a Doctor of the Church. His remains, in a cardinal's red robes, are displayed behind glass under a side altar in the Church of Saint Ignatius, the chapel of the Roman College, next to the body of his student Aloysius Gonzaga, as he himself had wished. In the General Roman Calendar Saint Robert Bellarmine's feast day is on 17 September, the day of his death; but some continue to use pre-1969 calendars, in which for 37 years his feast day was on 13 May. The rank assigned to his feast has been "double" (1932–1959), "third-class feast" (1960–1968), and since the 1969 revision "memorial".

Notes

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References

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Sources

External links

Template:Sister project links Template:Wikiquote Works of Bellarmine

Opera Omnia - Google Books links to the 1870-74 reprint of his collected works in Latin.
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Bellarmine, Robert (1614). A Shorte Catechisme of Card.^all Bellarmine Illustrated with the Images. On Google Books.
Bellarmine, Robert (n. d.). On the Roman Pontiff. An Extract from St. Robert Bellarmine, De Romano Pontifice, lib. II, cap. 30. Translated by Jim Larraby. With Introductory Remarks by John Lane. Archived from the original on 2018-12-06.
Bellarmine, Robert (n.d.). De Romano Pontifice, On the Roman Pontiff, 2 vol., 2015–2016, Mediatrix Press. Extract of Book II, Chapter 30 (published online with permission); extract of Book IV, Chapters 6 & 7 (published online with permission).
Bellarmine, Robert (1705). Steps of Ascension to God. Second Edition. London: W. Freeman. On Internet Archive.
Bellarmine, Robert (1753). Vita ven. Roberti cardinalis Bellarmini quam ipsemet scripsit rogatu familiaris sui p. Eudæmon Johannis Cretensis eruta ex scriniis Societatis [autobiography] (in Latin). On Google Books. In English in Woodstock Letters, Volume LXXXIX, Number 1, 1 February 1960, on the Jesuit Online Library (in Italian here, in French here)
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Bellarmine, Robert (1847). The Art of Dying Well. Translated by John Dalton. London: Richardson and Son. PDF File. Archived from the original on 2008-12-18.
Bellarmine, Robert (2008). The Art of Dying Well. Read by Maureen O'Brien. Audiobook. On Internet Archive.
Bellarmine, Robert (n.d.). The Eternal Happiness of the Saints. London: Richardson and Son. On Internet Archive
Bellarmine, Robert (n.d.). The Eternal Happiness of the Saints. London: Richardson and Son. PDF File. Archived from the original on 2015-09-08.
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Works about Bellarmine

CERL-Thesaurus on Robert Bellarmin (1542–1621)

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