Shigellosis

Shigellosis, known historically as dysentery, is an infection of the intestines caused by Shigella bacteria.<ref name="CDC2016Fact" /><ref name="ECDC">Template:Cite web</ref> Symptoms generally start one to two days after exposure and include diarrhea, fever, abdominal pain, and feeling the need to pass stools even when the bowels are empty.<ref name="CDC2016Fact" /> The diarrhea may be bloody.<ref name="CDC2016Fact" /> Symptoms typically last five to seven days and it may take several months before bowel habits return entirely to normal.<ref name="CDC2016Fact" /> Complications can include reactive arthritis, sepsis, seizures, and hemolytic uremic syndrome.<ref name="CDC2016Fact">Template:Cite web</ref>

Shigellosis is caused by four specific types of Shigella.<ref name=WHO2015>Template:Cite book</ref> These are typically spread by exposure to infected feces.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/> This can occur via contaminated food, water, or hands or sexual contact.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Contamination may be spread by flies or when changing diapers (nappies).<ref name=CDC2016Fact/> Diagnosis is by stool culture.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/>

The risk of infection can be reduced by properly washing the hands.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/> There is no vaccine.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/> Shigellosis usually resolves without specific treatment.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/> Rest, and sufficient fluids by mouth, are recommended.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/> Bismuth subsalicylate may help with the symptoms; however, medications that slow the bowels such as loperamide are not recommended.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/> In severe cases antibiotics may be used but resistance is common.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Commonly used antibiotics include ciprofloxacin and azithromycin.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/>

A 2005 report by the World Health Organization estimated that shigellosis occurs in at least 80 million people and results in about 700,000 deaths a year globally.<ref name=WHO2015/> Most cases occur in the developing world.<ref name=WHO2015/> Young children are most commonly affected.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/> Outbreaks of disease may occur in childcare settings and schools.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/> It is also relatively common among travelers.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/> In the United States about half a million cases occur a year.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/>

Signs and symptoms

Signs and symptoms may range from mild abdominal discomfort to severe dysentery characterized by cramps, diarrhea, with slimy-consistent stools, fever, blood, pus, or mucus in stools or tenesmus.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Niyogi">Template:Cite journal</ref> Onset time is 12 to 96 hours, and recovery takes 5 to 7 days.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Infections are associated with mucosal ulceration, rectal bleeding, and drastic dehydration. Reactive arthritis and hemolytic uremic syndrome are possible sequelae that have been reported in the aftermath of shigellosis.Template:Citation needed

The most common neurological symptom includes seizures.<ref name="WHO">Template:Cite web</ref>

Cause

Bacteria

Shigellosis is caused by a bacterial infection with Shigella,<ref name=CDC2016Fact/> a bacterium that is genetically similar to and was once classified as E. coli.<ref name="Ragupathi 2017">Template:Cite journal</ref> There are three serogroups and one serotype of Shigella:

• Shigella flexneri
• Shigella boydii
• Shigella dysenteriae and
• Shigella sonnei (serotype)<ref name=CDC2016Fact/>

The probability of being infected by any given strain of Shigella varies around the world. For instance, S. sonnei is the most common in the United States, while S. dysenteriae and S. boydii are rare there.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/>

Transmission

Shigella is transmitted through the fecal-oral route of individuals infected with the disease, whether or not they are exhibiting symptoms.<ref name=CDC2016Fact/><ref name="Merck Shigellosis Prof">Template:Cite web</ref> Long-term carriers of the bacteria are rare.<ref name="Merck Shigellosis Prof" /> The bacteria can infect not just humans but other primates as well.<ref name=CDC2017TravelersHealth>Template:Cite web</ref>

Mechanism

Upon ingestion, the bacteria pass through the gastrointestinal tract until they reach the small intestine. There they begin to multiply until they reach the large intestine.<ref name="Aslam 2018">Template:Cite book</ref> In the large intestine, the bacteria cause cell injury and the beginning stages of Shigellosis via two main mechanisms: direct invasion of epithelial cells in the large intestine and production of enterotoxin 1 and enterotoxin 2.<ref name="Aslam 2018" />

Unlike other bacteria, Shigella is not destroyed by the gastric acid in the stomach. As a result, it takes only 10 to 200 cells to cause an infection.<ref name="Aslam 2018" /> This infectious dose is several orders of magnitude smaller than that of other species of bacteria (e.g., cholera, caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, has an infectious dose between 10⁸ and 10¹¹ cells).<ref name="Nelson 2009">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of shigellosis is made by isolating the organism from diarrheal fecal sample cultures. Shigella species are negative for motility and are generally not lactose fermenters, but S. sonnei can ferment lactose.<ref name="pmid1746953">Template:Cite journal</ref> They typically do not produce gas from carbohydrates (with the exception of certain strains of S. flexneri) and tend to be overall biochemically inert. Shigella should also be urea hydrolysis negative. When inoculated to a triple sugar iron slant, they react as follows: K/A, gas -, and H₂S -. Indole reactions are mixed, positive and negative, with the exception of S. sonnei, which is always indole negative. Growth on Hektoen enteric agar produces bluish-green colonies for Shigella and bluish-green colonies with black centers for Salmonella.Template:Citation needed

Prevention

Simple precautions can be taken to prevent getting shigellosis: wash hands before handling food and thoroughly cook all food before eating. The primary prevention methods are improved sanitation and personal and food hygiene, but a low-cost and efficacious vaccine would complement these methods.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Since shigellosis is spread very quickly among children, keeping infected children out of daycare for 24 hours after their symptoms have disappeared, will decrease the occurrence of shigellosis in daycares.<ref>mayo clinic Template:Cite web</ref>

Vaccine

Currently, no licensed vaccine targeting Shigella exists. Several vaccine candidates for Shigella are in various stages of development including live attenuated, conjugate, ribosomal, and proteosome vaccines.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Shigella has been a longstanding World Health Organization target for vaccine development, and sharp declines in age-specific diarrhea/dysentery attack rates for this pathogen indicate that natural immunity does develop following exposure; thus, vaccination to prevent the disease should be feasible. Shigella species are resistant to many antibiotics,<ref name=CDC2016Fact /> so vaccination is an important part of the strategy to reduce morbidity and mortality.<ref name=":0" />

Treatment

Treatment consists mainly of replacing fluids and salts lost because of diarrhea. Replacement by mouth is satisfactory for most people, but some may need to receive fluids intravenously. Antidiarrheal drugs (such as diphenoxylate or loperamide) may prolong the infection and should not be used.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Antibiotics

Antibiotics should only be used in severe cases or for certain populations with mild symptoms (elderly, immunocompromised, food service industry workers, child care workers). For Shigella-associated diarrhea, antibiotics shorten the length of infection,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> but they are usually avoided in mild cases because many Shigella strains are becoming resistant to common antibiotics.<ref name="Kahsay">Template:Cite journal</ref> Furthermore, effective medications are often in short supply in developing countries, which carry the majority of the disease burden from Shigella. Antidiarrheal agents may worsen the sickness, and should be avoided.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In most cases, the disease resolves within four to eight days without antibiotics. Severe infections may last three to six weeks. Antibiotics, such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin may be given when the person is very young or very old, when the disease is severe, or when the risk of the infection spreading to other people is high. Additionally, ampicillin (but not amoxicillin) was effective in treating this disease previously, but now the first choice of drug is pivmecillinam.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Epidemiology

Insufficient data exist,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> but it is estimated to have caused the death of 34,000 children under the age of five in 2013, and 40,000 deaths in people over five years of age.<ref name=":0" /> Shigella also causes about 580,000 cases annually among travelers and military personnel from industrialized countries.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

An estimated 500,000 cases of shigellosis occur annually in the United States.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref> Infants, the elderly, and the critically ill are susceptible to the most severe symptoms of disease, but all humans are susceptible to some degree. Individuals with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) are more frequently infected with Shigella.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Shigellosis is a more common and serious condition in the developing world; fatality rates of shigellosis epidemics in developing countries can be 5–15%.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Orthodox Jewish communities (OJCs) are a known risk group for shigellosis; Shigella sonnei is cyclically epidemic in these communities in Israel, with sporadic outbreaks occurring elsewhere among these communities. "Through phylogenetic and genomic analysis, we showed that strains from outbreaks in OJCs outside of Israel are distinct from strains in the general population and relate to a single multidrug-resistant sublineage of S. sonnei that prevails in Israel. Further Bayesian phylogenetic analysis showed that this strain emerged approximately 30 years ago, demonstrating the speed at which antimicrobial drug–resistant pathogens can spread widely through geographically dispersed, but internationally connected, communities."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

See also

• Gastroenteritis
• Shiga-like toxin
• Shiga toxin
• Traveler's diarrhea

External links

• CDC's Shigellosis Page
• Vaccine Resource Library: Shigellosis and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC)