Avogadro constant
Template:Short description Template:Good article Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox The Avogadro constant, commonly denoted Template:Math<ref name=bipm9th/> or Template:Math,<ref name=iupac1996/> is an SI defining constant with an exact value of Template:Val (reciprocal moles).<ref name="SI2019"> Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=ciaaw/> It defines the number of constituent particles in one mole, where the particles in question can be either molecules, atoms, ions, ion pairs, or any other elementary entities. The number Template:Val is a dimensionless physical constant known as the Avogadro number, commonly denoted Template:Math<ref name="feynman" /><ref name="born" /> and often confused with the constant. Both are named after the Italian physicist and chemist Amedeo Avogadro.
The Avogadro constant is used as a normalization factor in relating the amount of substance <math display="inline">n(\mathrm{X})</math>, in a sample of a substance <math>\mathrm{X}</math>, to the corresponding number of elementary entities <math>N(\mathrm{X})</math>:
<math>n(\mathrm{X}) = \frac{N(\mathrm{X})}{N_{\mathrm{A}}} = N(\mathrm{X})\,\left(\frac{1\;\mathrm{mol}}{N_0}\right)</math>
The Avogadro constant Template:Math is also the factor that converts the average mass (<math>m</math>) of one particle, in grams, to the molar mass (<math>M</math>) of the substance, in grams per mole (g/mol).<ref name="okun" /> That is, <math>M = m\cdot N_{\text{A}}</math>. Historically, this was precisely true, but since the 2019 revision of the SI, the relation is now merely approximate.
The constant Template:Math also relates the molar volume (the volume per mole) of a substance to the average volume nominally occupied by one of its particles, when both are expressed in the same units of volume. For example, since the molar volume of water in ordinary conditions is about Template:Nowrap, the volume occupied by one molecule of water is about Template:Nowrap, or about Template:Val (cubic nanometres). For a crystalline substance, Template:Math relates the volume of a crystal with one mole worth of repeating unit cells, to the volume of a single cell (both in the same units).
Definition
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The Avogadro constant was historically derived from the old definition of the mole as the amount of substance in 12 grams of carbon-12 (12C); or, equivalently, the number of daltons in a gram, where the dalton is defined as Template:Sfrac of the mass of a 12C atom.<ref name="bipm8th" /> By this old definition, the numerical value of the Avogadro constant in mol−1 (the Avogadro number) was a physical constant that had to be determined experimentally.
The redefinition of the mole in 2019, as being the amount of substance containing exactly Template:Val particles,<ref name=NIST2019/> meant that the mass of 1 mole of a substance is now exactly the product of the Avogadro number and the average mass of its particles. The dalton, however, is still defined as Template:Sfrac of the mass of a 12C atom, which must be determined experimentally and is known only with finite accuracy. The prior experiments that aimed to determine the Avogadro constant are now re-interpreted as measurements of the value in grams of the dalton.
By the old definition of mole, the numerical value of the mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams, was precisely equal to the average mass of one particle in daltons. With the new definition, this numerical equivalence is no longer exact, as it is affected by the uncertainty of the value of the dalton in SI units. However, it is still applicable for all practical purposes. For example, the average mass of one molecule of water is about 18.0153 daltons, and of one mole of water is about 18.0153 grams. Also, the Avogadro number is the approximate number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in one gram of ordinary matter.
In older literature, the Avogadro number was also denoted Template:Mvar,<ref name=pauling/><ref name=mcgraw/> although that conflicts with the symbol for number of particles in statistical mechanics.
History
[edit]Origin of the concept
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The Avogadro constant is named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), who, in 1811, first proposed that the volume of a gas (at a given pressure and temperature) is proportional to the number of atoms or molecules regardless of the nature of the gas.<ref name=avog1811/>
Avogadro's hypothesis was popularized four years after his death by Stanislao Cannizzaro, who advocated Avogadro's work at the Karlsruhe Congress in 1860.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The name Avogadro's number was coined in 1909 by the physicist Jean Perrin, who defined it as the number of molecules in exactly 32 grams of oxygen gas.<ref name="perrin1909" /> The goal of this definition was to make the mass of a mole of a substance, in grams, be numerically equal to the mass of one molecule relative to the mass of the hydrogen atom; which, because of the law of definite proportions, was the natural unit of atomic mass, and was assumed to be Template:Sfrac of the atomic mass of oxygen.
First measurements
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The value of Avogadro's number (not yet known by that name) was first obtained indirectly by Josef Loschmidt in 1865, by estimating the number of particles in a given volume of gas.<ref name=losch1865/> This value, the number density Template:Math of particles in an ideal gas, is now called the Loschmidt constant in his honor, and is related to the Avogadro constant, Template:Math, by
- <math>n_0 = \frac{p_0N_{\rm A}}{R\,T_0},</math>
where Template:Math is the pressure, Template:Math is the gas constant, and Template:Math is the absolute temperature. Because of this work, the symbol Template:Math is sometimes used for the Avogadro constant,<ref name=bipm1971/> and, in German literature, that name may be used for both constants, distinguished only by the units of measurement.<ref name=virgo1933/> (However, Template:Math should not be confused with the entirely different Loschmidt constant in English-language literature.)
Perrin himself determined the Avogadro number, which he called "Avogadro's constant" (constante d'Avogadro), by several different experimental methods. He was awarded the 1926 Nobel Prize in Physics, largely for this work.<ref name=oseen1926/>
The electric charge per mole of electrons is a constant called the Faraday constant and has been known since 1834, when Michael Faraday published his works on electrolysis. In 1910, Robert Millikan with the help of Harvey Fletcher obtained the first measurement of the charge on an electron. Dividing the charge on a mole of electrons by the charge on a single electron provided a more accurate estimate of the Avogadro number.<ref name=ebrit1974/>
SI definition of 1971
[edit]In 1971, in its 14th conference, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) decided to regard the amount of substance as an independent dimension of measurement, with the mole as its base unit in the International System of Units (SI).<ref name=bipm1971/> Specifically, the mole was defined as the amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in Template:Nowrap (Template:Nowrap) of carbon-12 (12C).<ref name=bipm8th/> Thus, in particular, an amount of one mole of carbon 12 had a corresponding mass that was exactly Template:Nowrap of that element.
By this definition, one mole of any substance contained exactly as many elementary entities as one mole of any other substance. However, this number Template:Math was a physical constant that had to be experimentally determined since it depended on the mass (in grams) of one atom of 12C, and therefore, it was known only to a limited number of decimal digits.<ref name=bipm1971/> The common rule of thumb that "one gram of matter contains Template:Math nucleons" was exact for carbon-12, but slightly inexact for other elements and isotopes.
In the same conference, the BIPM also named Template:Math (the factor that related the amount of a substance to the corresponding number of particles) the "Avogadro constant". However, the term "Avogadro number" continued to be used, especially in introductory works.<ref name=kotz2008/> As a consequence of this definition, Template:Math was not a pure number, but had the metric dimension of reciprocal of amount of substance (mol−1).
SI redefinition of 2019
[edit]Template:Main In its 26th Conference, the BIPM adopted a different approach: effective 20 May 2019, it defined the Avogadro constant Template:Math as the exact value Template:Val, thus redefining the mole as exactly Template:Val constituent particles of the substance under consideration.<ref name=cipm106/><ref name=NIST2019/> One consequence of this change is that the mass of a mole of 12C atoms is no longer exactly 0.012 kg. On the other hand, the dalton (Template:Aka universal atomic mass unit) remains unchanged as Template:Sfrac of the mass of 12C.<ref name=pave2018/><ref name=IUPAC/> Thus, the molar mass constant remains very close to but no longer exactly equal to 1 g/mol, although the difference (Template:Val in relative terms, as of March 2019) is insignificant for all practical purposes.<ref name=NIST2019/><ref name=bipm9th/>
Connection to other constants
[edit]The Avogadro constant Template:Math is related to other physical constants and properties.
- It relates the molar gas constant Template:Mvar and the Boltzmann constant Template:Math, which in the SI is defined to be exactly Template:Val:<ref name=NIST2019/>
- It relates the Faraday constant Template:Mvar and the elementary charge Template:Mvar, which in the SI is defined as exactly Template:Val:<ref name=NIST2019/>
- It relates the molar mass constant Template:Math and the atomic mass constant Template:Math currently Template:Physconst
See also
[edit]References
[edit]External links
[edit]- 1996 definition of the Avogadro constant from the IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology ("Gold Book")
- Some Notes on Avogadro's Number, Template:Val (historical notes)
- An Exact Value for Avogadro's Number – American Scientist
- Avogadro and molar Planck constants for the redefinition of the kilogram
- Template:Cite journal
- Scanned version of "Two hypothesis of Avogadro", 1811 Avogadro's article, on BibNum