Statute of Westminster 1931

The Statute of Westminster 1931Template:Efn is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that significantly increased the autonomy of the Dominions of the British Commonwealth.

Passed on 11 December 1931, the statute increased the sovereignty of the self-governing Dominions of the British Empire from the United Kingdom. It also bound them all to seek each other's approval for changes to monarchical titles and the common line of succession. The statute was effective either immediately or upon ratification. It thus became a statutory embodiment of the principles of equality and common allegiance to the Crown set out in the Balfour Declaration of 1926. As the statute removed nearly all of the British parliament's authority to legislate for the Dominions, it was a crucial step in the development of the Dominions as separate, independent, and sovereign states.

Its modified versions are now domestic law in Australia and Canada; it has been repealed in New Zealand<ref name="New Zealand leaves Commonwealth">Template:Cite web</ref> and implicitly in former Dominions that are no longer Commonwealth realms.<ref name="Ireland leaves Commonwealth">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Zimbabwe leaves Commonwealth">Template:Cite news</ref>

History

England, and Britain after 1707, had colonies outside of Europe since the late 16th century. These early colonies were largely run by private companies rather than the Crown directly, but by the end of the century had (except for India) been subsumed under Crown control. Oversight of these colonies oscillated between relatively lax enforcement of laws and centralization of power depending on the politics of the day, but the Parliament in Westminster always remained supreme. Most colonies in North America broke away from British rule and became independent as the United States in the late 18th century, where after British attention turned towards Australia and Asia.<ref name="British policy in 19th century">Template:Cite news</ref>

British policy with regards to the colonies began to be rationalized and streamlined in the 19th century. Responsible government, wherein colonial governments were held accountable to legislatures just as the British cabinet was responsible to the British Parliament, was granted to colonies beginning with Nova Scotia in 1848. Confusion existed as to what extent British legislation applied to the colonies; in South Australia, justice Benjamin Boothby caused a nuisance by striking down several local laws as contrary ("repugnant") to the legislation in Britain. Westminster rectified this situation by passing the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865, which allowed the colonies to pass legislation different from that in Britain provided that it was not repugnant to any law expressly passed by the Imperial Parliament to extend to that colony. This had the dual effect of granting colonies autonomy within their borders while subordinating them to the British Parliament otherwise.<ref name="British responsible government policy">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

Most of the remaining colonies in North AmericaTemplate:Sndeverything north of the United States with the exception of NewfoundlandTemplate:Sndwere merged into a federal polity known as "Canada" in the late 1860s and early 1870s. Canada was termed a "dominion", a term previously used in slightly different contexts in English history, and granted a broad array of powers between the federal government and the provincial governments.<ref name="Canada becomes a dominion">Template:Cite web</ref> Australia was similarly deemed a dominion when it federated in 1901, as were Newfoundland, New Zealand, South Africa, and the Irish Free State in the first decades of the 20th century.<ref name="Statute history">Template:Cite news</ref>

A monochrome photograph of men wearing white tie with breeches, three of them (Baldwin for the United Kingdom, George V, and King for Canada, from viewer's left to right) seated in the front row and five (Monroe for Newfoundland, Coates for New Zealand, Bruce for Australia, Hertzog for South Africa, and Cosgrave for Ireland, ditto) standing behind them.

King George V surrounded by the prime ministers of the various dominions at the 1926 conference

Dominions did not possess full sovereignty on an equal footing with the United Kingdom. The parliament of Canada passed a law barring appeals from its Supreme Court to the imperial Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1888, but in 1925 a judgement of the Privy Council determined that this law was invalid.<ref>Nadan v The King, [1926] AC 482 (PC).</ref> Combined with the King–Byng affair the following year, this bred resentment in Canada and led to its insistence on full sovereignty. The leadership of the Irish Free State, meanwhile, was dominated by those who had fought a war of independence against Britain and who had agreed to dominion status as a compromise; they took a maximalist view of the autonomy they had secured in the Anglo-Irish Treaty and pushed for recognition of their state's sovereignty, which would have implications for the other dominions as well.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The 1926 Imperial Conference led to the Balfour declaration that dominions were equal in status to one another and to the United Kingdom. Further conferences in 1929 and 1930 worked out a substantive framework to implement this declaration. This became the Statute of Westminster 1931.<ref name="Statute history" />

Application

The Statute of Westminster gave effect to certain political resolutions passed by the Imperial Conferences of 1926 and 1930; in particular, the Balfour Declaration of 1926. The main effect was the removal of the ability of the British parliament to legislate for the Dominions, part of which also required the repeal of the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865 in its application to the Dominions. King George V expressed his desire that the laws of royal succession be exempt from the statute's provisions, but it was determined that this would be contrary to the principles of equality set out in the Balfour Declaration. Both Canada and the Irish Free State pushed for the ability to amend the succession laws themselves and section 2(2) (allowing a Dominion to amend or repeal laws of paramount force, such as the succession laws, insofar as they are part of the law of that Dominion) was included in the Statute of Westminster at Canada's insistence.<ref name=Twomey>Template:Cite AV media</ref> After the statute was passed, the British parliament could no longer make laws for the Dominions, other than with the request and consent of the government of that Dominion.

The statute provides in section 4: Template:Blockquote

It also provides in section 2(1): Template:Blockquote

The whole statute applied to the Dominion of Canada, the Irish Free State, and the Union of South Africa without the need for any acts of ratification; the governments of those countries gave their consent to the application of the law to their respective jurisdictions. Section 10 of the statute provided that sections 2 to 6 would apply in the other three Dominions —Australia, Dominion of New Zealand, and Newfoundland – only after the respective parliament of that Dominion had legislated to adopt them.

Since 1931, over a dozen new Commonwealth realms have been created, all of which now hold the same powers as the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand over matters of change to the monarchy, though the Statute of Westminster is not part of their laws.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Ireland and South Africa are now republics and Newfoundland is now part of Canada as a province.

Australia

File:Opening of the first parliament.jpg

The Big Picture, opening of the Parliament of Australia, 9 May 1901, by Tom Roberts

Australia adopted sections 2 to 6 of the Statute of Westminster with the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942,<ref>Template:Cite Legislation AU</ref> in order to clarify the validity of certain Australian legislation relating to the Second World War; the adoption was backdated to 3 September 1939, the date that Britain and Australia joined the war.

Adopting section 2 of the statute clarified that the Parliament of Australia was able to legislate inconsistently with British legislation, adopting section 3 clarified that it could legislate with extraterritorial effect. Adopting section 4 clarified that Britain could legislate with effect on Australia as a whole only with Australia's request and consent.<ref name="Australian independent government">Template:Cite web</ref>

Nonetheless, under section 9 of the statute, on matters not within Commonwealth power Britain could still legislate with effect in all or any of the Australian states, without the agreement of the Commonwealth although only to the extent of "the constitutional practice existing before the commencement" of the statute. However, this capacity had never been used. In particular, it was not used to implement the result of the 1933 Western Australian secession referendum, as it did not have the support of the Australian government.<ref name="Australian Secession Referendum">Template:Cite web</ref>

All British power to legislate with effect in Australia ended with the Australia Act 1986, the British version of which says that it was passed with the request and consent of the Australian Parliament, which had obtained the concurrence of the parliaments of the Australian states.<ref name=SydLaw>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Canada

This statute limited the legislative authority of the British parliament over Canada, effectively giving the country legal autonomy as a self-governing Dominion, though the British parliament retained the power to amend Canada's constitution at the request of Canada. That authority remained in effect until the Constitution Act, 1982, which transferred it to Canada, the final step to achieving full sovereignty.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The British North America Acts—the written elements (in 1931) of the Canadian constitution—were excluded from the application of the statute because of disagreements between the Canadian provinces and the federal government over how the British North America Acts could be otherwise amended.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> These disagreements were resolved only in time for the passage of the Canada Act 1982, thus completing the patriation of the Canadian constitution to Canada.

At that time, the Parliament of the United Kingdom also repealed ss 4 and 7(1) of the Statute of Westminster as applied to Canada.<ref>Constitution Act, 1982, s 53(1) & Schedule, Item 17.</ref> The Statute of Westminster, as amended, remains a part of the constitution of Canada by virtue of section 52(2)(b) of and the schedule to the Constitution Act, 1982. The Newfoundland Terms of Union expressly provide for the application of the Statute of Westminster to the province of Newfoundland and Labrador.<ref name="ReferenceA">Newfoundland Act, Schedule, Term 48.</ref>

As a consequence of the statute's adoption, the Parliament of Canada gained the ability to abolish appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Criminal appeals were abolished in 1933,<ref>Criminal Code Amendment Act, S.C. 1932–33, c. 53, s. 17</ref> while civil appeals continued until 1949.<ref>Supreme Court Amendment Act, S.C. 1949 (2nd. session), c. 37, s. 3</ref> The passage of the Statute of Westminster meant that changes in British legislation governing the succession to the throne no longer automatically applied to Canada.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Irish Free State

The Irish Free State never formally adopted the Statute of Westminster, its Executive Council (cabinet) taking the view that the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 had already ended Westminster's right to legislate for the Irish Free State.<ref name=Mohr2011>Template:Cite journal</ref> The Free State's constitution gave the Oireachtas "sole and exclusive power of making laws". Hence, even before 1931, the Irish Free State did not arrest deserters from the British Army and Royal Air Force on its territory, even though the UK believed post-1922 British laws gave the Free State's Garda Síochána the power to do so.<ref name=Mohr2011/> The UK's Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922 said, however, "Template:Nowrap in the [Free State] Constitution shall be construed as prejudicing the power of [the British] Parliament to make laws affecting the Irish Free State in any case where, in accordance with constitutional practice, Parliament would make laws affecting other self-governing Dominions".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In 1924, Kevin O'Higgins, the Free State's Vice-President of the Executive Council, declared that "Ireland secured by that 'surrender' [the Treaty] a constitutional status equal to that of Canada. 'Canada,' said the late Mr. Bonar Law,' is by the full admission of British statesmen equal in status to Great Britain and as free as Great Britain'. The constitutional status of Ireland, therefore, as determined by the Treaty of 1921, is a status of co-equality with Britain within the British Commonwealth. The second Article of the Constitution of the Free State", he added, "declares that 'All powers of Government and all authority, legislative, executive and judicial, in Ireland are derived from the people of Ireland' ".<ref name="Three years">Template:Cite book</ref>

Motions of approval of the Report of the Commonwealth Conference had been passed by the Dáil and Seanad in May 1931<ref name=Mohr2011/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and the final form of the Statute of Westminster included the Irish Free State among the Dominions the British Parliament could not legislate for without the Dominion's request and consent.<ref>Statute of Westminster 1931, §§1,10</ref> Originally, the UK government had wanted to exclude from the Statute of Westminster the legislation underpinning the 1921 treaty, from which the Free State's constitution had emerged. Executive Council President (Prime Minister) W. T. Cosgrave objected, although he promised that the Executive Council would not amend the legislation unilaterally. The other Dominions backed Cosgrave and, when an amendment to similar effect was proposed at Westminster by John Gretton, parliament duly voted it down.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> When the statute became law in the UK, Patrick McGilligan, the Free State Minister for External Affairs, stated: "It is a solemn declaration by the British people through their representatives in Parliament that the powers inherent in the Treaty position are what we have proclaimed them to be for the last ten years."<ref name=difp1317>Template:Cite web</ref> He went on to present the statute as largely the fruit of the Irish Free State's efforts to secure for the other Dominions the same benefits it already enjoyed under the treaty.<ref name=difp1317 /> The Statute of Westminster had the effect of granting the Irish Free State internationally recognised independence.

Éamon de Valera led Fianna Fáil to victory in the Irish Free State election of 1932 on a platform of republicanising the Irish Free State from within. Upon taking office, de Valera began removing the monarchical elements of the Constitution, beginning with the Oath of Allegiance. De Valera initially considered invoking the Statute of Westminster in making these changes, but John J. Hearne advised him not to.<ref name=Mohr2011/> Abolishing the Oath of Allegiance in effect abrogated the 1921 treaty. Generally, the British thought that this was morally objectionable but legally permitted by the Statute of Westminster. Robert Lyon Moore, a Southern Unionist from County Donegal, challenged the legality of the abolition in the Irish Free State's courts and then appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London.<ref name="moore_v_AG"/> However, the Irish Free State had also abolished the right of appeal to the JCPC.<ref>Template:Cite ISB</ref> In 1935, the JCPC ruled that both abolitions were valid under the Statute of Westminster.<ref name="moore_v_AG">Moore v Attorney General Template:Webarchive [1935] 1 I.R.</ref> The Irish Free State, which in 1937 was renamed Ireland, left the Commonwealth on 18 April 1949 upon the coming into force of The Republic of Ireland Act 1948.

New Zealand

The Parliament of New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster by passing its Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947 in November 1947. The New Zealand Constitution Amendment Act, passed the same year, empowered the New Zealand Parliament to change the constitution, but did not remove the ability of the British Parliament to legislate regarding the New Zealand constitution. The remaining role of the British Parliament was removed by the New Zealand Constitution Act 1986 and the Statute of Westminster was repealed in its entirety.<ref name=SydLaw/><ref>A.E. Currie, New Zealand and the Statute of Westminster, 1931 (Butterworth, 1944).</ref>

Newfoundland

The Dominion of Newfoundland never adopted the Statute of Westminster, especially because of financial troubles and corruption there. By request of the Dominion's government, the United Kingdom established the Commission of Government in 1934, resuming direct rule of Newfoundland.<ref name="comm">Template:Cite web</ref> That arrangement remained until Newfoundland became a province of Canada in 1949 following referendums on the issue in 1948.<ref name=historyquatre>Template:Cite web</ref> The Statute of Westminster became applicable to Newfoundland when it was admitted to Canada.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Union of South Africa

Although the Union of South Africa was not among the Dominions that needed to adopt the Statute of Westminster for it to take effect, two laws — the Status of the Union Act, 1934, and the Royal Executive Functions and Seals Act, 1934 — were passed to confirm South Africa's status as a fully sovereign state.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Implications for succession to the throne

File:KingBaldwin1926.jpg

Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King (left) and his British counterpart Stanley Baldwin (right), 1926

The preamble to the Statute of Westminster sets out a guideline for changing the rules of succession to the Crown. The second paragraph of the preamble to the statute reads:

Though a preamble is not considered to have the force of statute law, that of the Statute of Westminster has come to be a constitutional convention, which "has always been treated in practice as though it were a binding requirement".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The convention was then adopted by every country that subsequently gained its independence from Britain and became a Commonwealth realm.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Abdication of King Edward VIII

File:Edward abdication.png

Instrument of abdication signed by Edward VIII and his three brothers, Albert, Henry and George, 10 December 1936

During the abdication crisis in 1936, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin consulted the Commonwealth prime ministers at the request of King Edward VIII. The King wanted to marry Wallis Simpson, whom Baldwin and other British politicians considered unacceptable as Queen, as she was an American divorcée. Baldwin was able to get the then-five Dominion prime ministers to agree with this and, thus, register their official disapproval at the King's planned marriage. The King later requested the Commonwealth prime ministers be consulted on a compromise plan, in which he would wed Simpson under a morganatic marriage, pursuant to which she would not become queen. Under Baldwin's pressure, this plan was also rejected by the Dominions. All of these negotiations occurred at a diplomatic level and never went to the Commonwealth parliaments. The enabling legislation that allowed for the actual abdication (His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936) did require the assent of each Dominion parliament to be passed and the request and consent of the Dominion governments so as to allow it to be part of the law of each Dominion. For expediency and to avoid embarrassment, the British government had suggested the Dominion governments regard whoever is monarch of the UK to automatically be their monarch, but the Dominions rejected this. Prime Minister of Canada William Lyon Mackenzie King pointed out that the Statute of Westminster required Canada's request and consent to any legislation passed by the British Parliament before it could become part of Canada's laws and affect the line of succession in Canada.<ref name=Twomey/> The text of the British act states that Canada requested and consented (the only Dominion to formally do both<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>) to the act applying in Canada under the Statute of Westminster, while Australia, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa simply assented.

In February 1937, the South African Parliament formally gave its assent by passing His Majesty King Edward the Eighth's Abdication Act, 1937, which declared that Edward VIII had abdicated on 10 December 1936; that he and his descendants, if any, would have no right of succession to the throne; and that the Royal Marriages Act 1772 would not apply to him or his descendants, if any.<ref name=sac>May, H. J. (1949). The South African Constitution.</ref> The move was largely done for symbolic purposes, in an attempt by Prime Minister J. B. M. Hertzog to assert South Africa's independence from Britain.<ref name="Prime Minister J. B. M. Hertzog pushes for independence from Brittan">Template:Cite web</ref> In Canada, the federal Parliament passed the Succession to the Throne Act, 1937, to assent to His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act and ratify the government's request and consent to it.

In the Irish Free State, President Éamon de Valera used the abdication of King Edward VIII as an opportunity to remove all explicit mention of the monarch from the Constitution of the Irish Free State, through the Constitution (Amendment No. 27) Act 1936, passed on 11 December 1936. The following day, the External Relations Act provided for the King to carry out certain diplomatic functions, if authorised by law; the same act also brought Edward VIII's Instrument of Abdication into effect for the purposes of Irish law (s. 3(2)).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A new Constitution of Ireland, with a president, was approved by Irish voters in 1937, with the Irish Free State becoming simply "Ireland", or, in the Irish language, Template:Lang. The position of head of state of Ireland remained unclear until 1949, when Ireland unambiguously became a republic outside the Commonwealth of Nations by enacting The Republic of Ireland Act 1948. Between 1937 and 1949, King George VI was recognised under the External Relations Act as the external head of state, while the President of Ireland served as the internal head of state as a replacement for the Governor-General of the Irish Free State as from 1938, when Douglas Hyde was elected. Ireland was both a Dominion and a de-facto republic, as it was still within the British Commonwealth.

Commemoration in Canada

In Canada, 11 December is commemorated Statute of Westminster Day. The Royal Union Flag (as the Union Jack is called by law in Canada) is flown by federal buildings where a second flagpole is available to mark the day.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

See also

• Chanak Crisis
• Commonwealth of Nations membership criteria
• Westminster system
• Canadian sovereignty

Further reading

• Bailey, Kenneth H. "The Statute of Westminster." Australian Quarterly 3.12 (1931): 24–46. online
• Mansergh, Nicholas. Survey of British Commonwealth affairs: problems of external policy, 1931–1939 (Oxford University Press, 1952).
• Nicolson, Harold. King George V (1953) pp 470–488. online
• Wheare, K. C. The Statute of Westminster, 1931 (Clarendon Press, 1933).
• Wheare, K. C. The Statute of Westminster and dominion status (Oxford University Press, 1953).

External links

• Digital reproduction of the Original Act on the Parliamentary Archives catalogue

• 1 – Canada and the Statute of Westminster
• 2 – Canada and the Statute of Westminster
• Statute of Westminster, 1931 (text)
• Australia and the Statute of Westminster