Spice

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Spices at a central market in Agadir, Morocco

A group of Indian herbs and spices in bowls

File:Spices of Saúde flea market, São Paulo, Brazil.jpg

Spices of Saúde flea market, São Paulo, Brazil

In the culinary arts, a spice is any seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance in a form primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish. Spices and seasoning do not mean the same thing, but spices fall under the seasoning category with herbs. Spices are sometimes used in medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics, or perfume production. They are usually classified into spices, spice seeds, and herbal categories.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> For example, vanilla is commonly used as an ingredient in fragrance manufacturing.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Plant-based sweeteners such as sugar are not considered spices.

Spices can be used in various forms, including fresh, whole, dried, grated, chopped, crushed, ground, or extracted into a tincture. These processes may occur before the spice is sold, during meal preparation in the kitchen, or even at the table when serving a dish, such as grinding peppercorns as a condiment. Certain spices, like turmeric, are rarely available fresh or whole and are typically purchased in ground form. Small seeds, such as fennel and mustard, can be used either in their whole form or as a powder, depending on the culinary need.

A whole dried spice has the longest shelf life, so it can be purchased and stored in larger amounts, making it cheaper on a per-serving basis. A fresh spice, such as ginger, is usually more flavorful than its dried form, but fresh spices are more expensive and have a much shorter shelf life.

There is not enough clinical evidence to indicate that consuming spices affects human health.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref>

India contributes to 75% of global spice production.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> This is reflected culturally through its cuisine. Historically, the spice trade developed throughout the Indian subcontinent as well as in East Asia and the Middle East. Europe's demand for spices was among the economic and cultural factors that encouraged exploration in the early modern period.

Definition

Although defining spice is difficult, varying definitions cover several common aspects. One such aspect is the biological source of spices: the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) identifies the source as vegetables, while Redgrove (1933) is more specific as to the part of the plant, specifically the root, rhizome, flower, fruit, seed and bark when they are dried, in contrast with herbaceous parts which constitute herbs. The Oxford Companion to Food challenges spices as sourced from plants being a hard rule, pointing to ambergris being often identified as a spice despite its animal origin.Template:Sfnp

Another aspect is the geographical source: The OED specifies spices are sourced from the tropics, while The Oxford Companion to Food gives the example of caraway seeds as demonstrating that spices can come from temperate climes. The notion that spices have a tropical origin is historic: originally "spice" was understood as a type of merchandise from the Orient. As Europeans encountered the Americas, beginning the Columbian exchange, the meaning expanded to capture new aromatics, and the meaning later shifted again to refer to culinary use. This historic development has led to some ingredients indigenous to European cooking such as garlic and horseradish not being considered spices despite sharing many attributes.Template:Sfnp

History

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Early history

Archeological study of early spice use is difficult, as spices were used in small quantities, leaving few preserved remains.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The spice trade developed throughout the Indian subcontinent<ref name="Sidebotham2019">Template:Cite book</ref> and Middle East by 2000 BCE with cinnamon and black pepper, and in East Asia with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for cuisine and mummification. Their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade.

Cloves were used in Mesopotamia by 1700 BCE.Template:Refn The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian cultures. The Ebers Papyrus from early Egypt dating from 1550 BCE describes some eight hundred different herbal medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

By 1000 BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in China, Korea, and India.Template:Citation needed Early uses were associated with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation.<ref name=ABCp14>Template:Cite book</ref>

Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa. Arab merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian port city of Alexandria being the main trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade was the monsoon winds (40 CE). Sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans.<ref name=ABCp14/>

Spices were prominent enough in the ancient world that they are mentioned in the Old Testament. In Genesis, Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In Exodus, manna is described as being similar to coriander in appearance. In the Song of Solomon, the male narrator compares his beloved to many saffron, cinnamon, and other spices.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Historians believe that nutmeg, which originates from the Banda Islands in Southeast Asia, was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Romans had cloves in the 1st century CE, as Pliny the Elder wrote about them.<ref name="Duke 2002 p. 7">Template:Cite book</ref>

Middle Ages

File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg

"The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of The Travels of Marco Polo.

Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the Middle Ages,^[5] the most common being black pepper, cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger, and cloves. Given medieval medicine's main theory of humorism, spices and herbs were indispensable to balance "humors" in food,^[6] on a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent pandemics. In addition to being desired by those using medieval medicine, the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages, believing spices to be from and a connection to "paradise".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the King of Aragon, who invested substantial resources into importing spices to Spain in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in wine and was not alone among European monarchs at the time to have such a desire for spice.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the Republic of Venice held a monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, using this position to dominate the neighboring Italian maritime republics and city-states. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the Late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The most exclusive was saffron, used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into obscurity in European cuisine include grains of paradise, a relative of cardamom which mostly replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, long pepper, mace, spikenard, galangal, and cubeb.<ref name="freedman" />

Early modern period

Voyagers from Spain and Portugal were interested in seeking new routes to trade in spices and other valuable products from Asia. The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama sailed to India in 1499.^[8] When da Gama discovered the pepper market in India, he was able to secure peppers for a much lower cost than demanded by Venice.<ref name=":0" /> At around the same time, Christopher Columbus returned from the New World. He described to investors the new spices available there.<ref>Turner, 2004, p. 11</ref>Template:Efn

Another source of competition in the spice trade during the 15th and 16th centuries was the Ragusans from the maritime republic of Dubrovnik in southern Croatia.<ref>Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, p. 453, Gil Marks, John Wiley & Sons, 2010. Template:ISBN</ref> The military prowess of Afonso de Albuquerque (1453–1515) allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of Socotra in the mouth of the Red Sea and, in 1507, Ormuz in the Persian Gulf. Since becoming the viceroy of the Indies, he took Goa in India in 1510, and Malacca on the Malay Peninsula in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with Siam, China, and the Maluku Islands.Template:Cn

With the discovery of the New World came new spices, including allspice, chili peppers, vanilla, and chocolate. This development kept the spice trade, with the Americas as a latecomer with their new seasonings, profitable well into the 19th century.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Function

Chili powder, mustard seeds, turmeric powder, cumin seeds

Turmeric powder, mustard seeds, chilli powder, cumin seeds

Spices are primarily used as food flavoring or to create variety.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite news</ref> They are also used to perfume cosmetics and incense. At various periods, many spices were used in herbal medicine. Finally, since they can be expensive, rare and exotic commodities, their conspicuous consumption has often been a symbol of wealth and social class.<ref name="freedman">Paul Freedman, Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination, 2008, Template:Isbn, p. 2-3</ref>

Preservative claim

Template:Quote box It is often claimed that spices were used either as food preservatives or to mask the taste of spoiled meat, especially in the European Middle Ages.<ref name="freedman"/><ref name="ThomasDaoust2012">Template:Cite journal</ref> This is false.<ref>Paul Freedman, "Food Histories of the Middle Ages", in Kyri W. Claflin, Peter Scholliers, Writing Food History: A Global Perspective, Template:Isbn, p. 24</ref><ref>Andrew Dalby, Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices, 2000, Template:Isbn, p. 156</ref><ref>Andrew Jotischky, A Hermit's Cookbook: Monks, Food and Fasting in the Middle Ages, 2011, Template:Isbn, p. 170</ref><ref name="freedman" /> In fact, spices are rather ineffective as preservatives as compared to salting, smoking, pickling, or drying, and are ineffective in covering the taste of spoiled meat.<ref name="freedman"/> Moreover, spices have always been comparatively expensive: in 15th century Oxford, a whole pig cost about the same as a pound of the cheapest spice, pepper.<ref name="freedman"/> There is also no evidence of such use from contemporary cookbooks: "Old cookbooks make it clear that spices weren't used as a preservative. They typically suggest adding spices toward the end of the cooking process, where they could have no preservative effect whatsoever."<ref name="krondl">Michael Krondl, The Taste of Conquest: The Rise and Fall of the Three Great Cities of Spice, 2007, Template:Isbn, p. 6</ref> Indeed, Cristoforo di Messisbugo suggested in the 16th century that pepper may speed up spoilage.<ref name="krondl"/>

Though some spices have antimicrobial properties in vitro,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> pepper—by far the most common spice—is relatively ineffective, and in any case, salt, which is far cheaper, is also far more effective.<ref name="krondl"/> Template:Clear

Classification and types

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File:Indian spices with labels (garam masala components) (49684333301).jpg

A plate of Indian herbs and spices

Handling

File:Spice-shelf.jpg

A shelf of common spices for a home kitchen in Canada or the United States

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File:Peugeot pepper mill.jpg

Pepper mill

A mortar and pestle is the classic set of tools for grinding a whole spice. Less labor-intensive tools are more common now: a microplane or fine grater can be used to grind small amounts; a coffee grinder<ref group=note>Other types of coffee grinders, such as a burr mill, can grind spices just as well as coffee beans.</ref> is useful for larger amounts. A frequently used spice such as black pepper may merit storage in its own hand grinder or mill.

The flavor of a spice is derived in part from compounds (volatile oils) that oxidize or evaporate when exposed to air. Grinding a spice greatly increases its surface area and so increases the rates of oxidation and evaporation. Thus, the flavor is maximized by storing a spice whole and grinding when needed. The shelf life of a whole dry spice is roughly two years; of a ground spice roughly six months.<ref name=GE714>Template:Cite episode</ref> The "flavor life" of a ground spice can be much shorter.<ref group=note>Nutmeg, in particular, suffers from grinding and the flavor will degrade noticeably in a matter of days.</ref> Ground spices are better stored away from light.<ref group=note>Light contributes to oxidation processes.</ref>

Some flavor elements in spices are soluble in water; many are soluble in oil or fat. As a general rule, the flavors from a spice take time to infuse into the food so spices are added early in preparation. This contrasts to herbs which are usually added late in preparation.<ref name=GE714/>

Salmonella contamination

A study by the Food and Drug Administration of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007–2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by Salmonella bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and are present at the table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated.<ref name=NYT82713>Template:Cite news</ref> Food irradiation is said to minimize this risk.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Template:Clear

Production

File:Spices in an Indian market.jpg

Spices and herbs at a shop in Goa, India

Top Spice Producing Countries
(in metric tonnes)
Rank	Country	2010	2011
1	India	1,474,900	1,525,000
2	Bangladesh	128,517	139,775
3	Turkey	107,000	113,783
4	China	90,000	95,890
5	Pakistan	53,647	53,620
6	Iran	18,028	21,307
7	Nepal	20,360	20,905
8	Colombia	16,998	19,378
9	Ethiopia	27,122	17,905
10	Sri Lanka	8,293	8,438
—	World	1,995,523	2,063,472
Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organization<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

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Standardization

The International Organization for Standardization addresses spices and condiments, along with related food additives, as part of the International Classification for Standards 67.220 series.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Gallery

The Gato Negro café and spice shop (Buenos Aires, Argentina)

The Gato Negro café and spice shop (Buenos Aires, Argentina)
A spice shop selling a variety of spices in Iran

A spice shop selling a variety of spices in Iran
Night spice shop in Casablanca, Morocco

Night spice shop in Casablanca, Morocco
A spice shop in Taliparamba, India

A spice shop in Taliparamba, India
Spices sold in Taliparamba, India

Spices sold in Taliparamba, India
Spice seller at a market in Kashgar, China

Spice seller at a market in Kashgar, China
Spice market, Marrakesh, Morocco

Spice market, Marrakesh, Morocco

Notes

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References

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Sources

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External links

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