Multiverse

The multiverse is the hypothetical set of all universes.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Efn Together, these universes are presumed to comprise everything that exists: the entirety of space, time, matter, energy, information, and the physical laws and constants that describe them. The different universes within the multiverse are called "parallel universes", "flat universes", "other universes", "alternate universes", "multiple universes", "plane universes", "parent and child universes", "many universes", or "many worlds". One common assumption is that the multiverse is a "patchwork quilt of separate universes all bound by the same laws of physics."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The concept of multiple universes, or a multiverse, has been discussed throughout history. It has evolved and has been debated in various fields, including cosmology, physics, and philosophy. Some physicists have argued that the multiverse is a philosophical notion rather than a scientific hypothesis, as it cannot be empirically falsified. In recent years, there have been proponents and skeptics of multiverse theories within the physics community. Although some scientists have analyzed data in search of evidence for other universes, no statistically significant evidence has been found. Critics argue that the multiverse concept lacks testability and falsifiability, which are essential for scientific inquiry, and that it raises unresolved metaphysical issues.

Max Tegmark and Brian Greene have proposed different classification schemes for multiverses and universes. Tegmark's four-level classification consists of Level I: an extension of our universe, Level II: universes with different physical constants, Level III: many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, and Level IV: ultimate ensemble. Brian Greene's nine types of multiverses include quilted, inflationary, brane, cyclic, landscape, quantum, holographic, simulated, and ultimate. The ideas explore various dimensions of space, physical laws, and mathematical structures to explain the existence and interactions of multiple universes. Some other multiverse concepts include twin-world models, cyclic theories, M-theory, and black-hole cosmology.

The anthropic principle suggests that the existence of a multitude of universes, each with different physical laws, could explain the asserted appearance of fine-tuning of our own universe for conscious life. The weak anthropic principle posits that we exist in one of the few universes that support life. Debates around Occam's razor and the simplicity of the multiverse versus a single universe arise, with proponents like Max Tegmark arguing that the multiverse is simpler and more elegant. The many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics and modal realism, the belief that all possible worlds exist and are as real as our world, are also subjects of debate in the context of the anthropic principle.

History of the concept

According to some, the idea of infinite worlds was first suggested by the pre-Socratic Greek philosopher Anaximander in the sixth century BCE.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> However, there is debate as to whether he believed in multiple worlds, and if he did, whether those worlds were co-existent or successive.<ref> Template:Cite journal </ref><ref> Template:Cite book </ref><ref> Template:Cite book </ref><ref name="Hatleback2014"> Template:Cite thesis</ref>

The first to whom we can definitively attribute the concept of innumerable worlds are the Ancient Greek Atomists, beginning with Leucippus and Democritus in the 5th century BCE, followed by Epicurus (341–270 BCE) and Lucretius (1st century BCE).<ref name="Siegfried2019"> Template:Cite book </ref><ref> Template:Cite book </ref><ref name="Hatleback2014"/><ref name="Rubenstein2014"> Template:Cite book </ref><ref name="Sedacca2017"> Template:Cite web </ref><ref> Template:Cite web </ref> In the third century BCE, the philosopher Chrysippus suggested that the world eternally expired and regenerated, effectively suggesting the existence of multiple universes across time.<ref name=Sedacca2017/> The concept of multiple universes became more defined in the Middle Ages.Template:Citation needed

The American philosopher and psychologist William James used the term "multiverse" in 1895, but in a different context.<ref>James, William, The Will to Believe, 1895; and earlier in 1895, as cited in OED's new 2003 entry for "multiverse": Template:Citation</ref>

The concept first appeared in the modern scientific context in the course of the debate between Boltzmann and Zermelo in 1895.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In Dublin in 1952, Erwin Schrödinger gave a lecture in which he jocularly warned his audience that what he was about to say might "seem lunatic". He said that when his equations seemed to describe several different histories, these were "not alternatives, but all really happen simultaneously".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> This sort of duality is called "superposition".

Search for evidence

In the 1990s, after recent works of fiction about the concept gained popularity, scientific discussions about the multiverse and journal articles about it gained prominence.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Around 2010, scientists such as Stephen M. Feeney analyzed Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) data and claimed to find evidence suggesting that this universe collided with other (parallel) universes in the distant past.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> However, a more thorough analysis of data from the WMAP and from the Planck satellite, which has a resolution three times higher than WMAP, did not reveal any statistically significant evidence of such a bubble universe collision.<ref name="Feeney">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Feeney2">Template:Cite journal. Template:Cite journal</ref> In addition, there was no evidence of any gravitational pull of other universes on ours.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

In 2015, an astrophysicist may have found evidence of alternate or parallel universes by looking back in time to a time immediately after the Big Bang, although it is still a matter of debate among physicists.<ref name="www.usatoday.com">Template:Cite web por Doyle Rice, USA Today (2015).</ref> Dr. Ranga-Ram Chary, after analyzing the cosmic radiation spectrum, found a signal 4,500 times brighter than it should have been, based on the number of protons and electrons scientists believe existed in the very early universe. This signal—an emission line that arose from the formation of atoms during the era of recombination—is more consistent with a universe whose ratio of matter particles to photons is about 65 times greater than our own. There is a 30% chance that this signal is noise, and not really a signal at all; however, it is also possible that it exists because a parallel universe dumped some of its matter particles into our universe. If additional protons and electrons had been added to our universe during recombination, more atoms would have formed, more photons would have been emitted during their formation, and the signature line that arose from all of these emissions would be greatly enhanced. Chary himself is skeptical:Template:Quotation

Chary also noted:<ref name="phys.org">Template:Cite web por Vanessa Janek, "Universe Today" (2015).</ref>Template:Quotation

The signature that Chary has isolated may be a consequence of incoming light from distant galaxies, or even from clouds of dust surrounding our own galaxy.<ref name="phys.org"/>

Proponents and skeptics

Modern proponents of one or more of the multiverse hypotheses include Lee Smolin,<ref>Smolin, Lee. The Life of the Cosmos. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195126648.</ref> Don Page,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Brian Greene,<ref name="C4WDefault-4326764">Template:Cite interview</ref><ref name="C4WDefault-379179">Template:Cite interview</ref> Max Tegmark,<ref name="X0302131" /> Alan Guth,<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Cbignore</ref> Andrei Linde,<ref name="C4WDefault-6178546">Template:Cite web</ref> Michio Kaku,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> David Deutsch,<ref>David Deutsch (1997). "The Ends of the Universe". The Fabric of Reality: The Science of Parallel Universes—and Its Implications. London, England: Penguin Press. Template:ISBN.</ref> Leonard Susskind,<ref name="BoussoSusskind">Template:Cite journal</ref> Alexander Vilenkin,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Yasunori Nomura,<ref name="Nomura">Template:Cite journal</ref> Raj Pathria,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Laura Mersini-Houghton,<ref name="TG-20220827">Template:Cite news</ref> Neil deGrasse Tyson,<ref name="C4WDefault-2084173">Template:Cite news</ref> Sean Carroll<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> and Stephen Hawking.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Scientists who are generally skeptical of the concept of a multiverse or popular multiverse hypotheses include Sabine Hossenfelder,<ref name="Sabine">Template:Cite magazine</ref> David Gross,<ref name="Davies2008">Template:Cite book</ref> Paul Steinhardt,<ref name="edge-steinhardt-2014retire">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Multimess"/> Anna Ijjas,<ref name="Multimess">Template:Citation.</ref> Abraham Loeb,<ref name="Multimess"/> David Spergel,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Neil Turok,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Viatcheslav Mukhanov,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Michael S. Turner,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Roger Penrose,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> George Ellis,<ref name="SciAmer-731548">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="C4WDefault-1835434">Template:Cite web</ref> Joe Silk,<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Carlo Rovelli,<ref>Template:Citation.</ref> Adam Frank,<ref name="Crisis" >Template:Cite news</ref> Marcelo Gleiser,<ref name = "Crisis" /> Jim Baggott<ref name="Amazon-1605984728">Template:Cite book </ref> and Paul Davies.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Arguments against multiverse hypotheses

In his 2003 New York Times opinion piece, "A Brief History of the Multiverse", author and cosmologist Paul Davies offered a variety of arguments that multiverse hypotheses are non-scientific:<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Template:Quotation

George Ellis, writing in August 2011, provided a criticism of the multiverse, and pointed out that it is not a traditional scientific theory. He accepts that the multiverse is thought to exist far beyond the cosmological horizon. He emphasized that it is theorized to be so far away that it is unlikely any evidence will ever be found. Ellis also explained that some theorists do not believe the lack of empirical testability and falsifiability is a major concern, but he is opposed to that line of thinking: Template:Quotation

Ellis says that scientists have proposed the idea of the multiverse as a way of explaining the nature of existence. He points out that it ultimately leaves those questions unresolved because it is a metaphysical issue that cannot be resolved by empirical science. He argues that observational testing is at the core of science and should not be abandoned:<ref name="SciAmer-9723382">Template:Cite magazine</ref> Template:Quotation

Philosopher Philip Goff argues that the inference of a multiverse to explain the apparent fine-tuning of the universe is an example of Inverse Gambler's Fallacy.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Stoeger, Ellis, and Kircher<ref>Template:Cite arXiv</ref>Template:Rp note that in a true multiverse theory, "the universes are then completely disjoint and nothing that happens in any one of them is causally linked to what happens in any other one. This lack of any causal connection in such multiverses really places them beyond any scientific support".

In May 2020, astrophysicist Ethan Siegel expressed criticism in a Forbes blog post that parallel universes would have to remain a science fiction dream for the time being, based on the scientific evidence available to us.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Scientific American contributor John Horgan also argues against the idea of a multiverse, claiming that they are "bad for science."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Types

Max Tegmark and Brian Greene have devised classification schemes for the various theoretical types of multiverses and universes that they might comprise.

Max Tegmark's four levels

Template:AnchorCosmologist Max Tegmark has provided a taxonomy of universes beyond the familiar observable universe. The four levels of Tegmark's classification are arranged such that subsequent levels can be understood to encompass and expand upon previous levels. They are briefly described below.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Level I: An extension of our universe

A prediction of cosmic inflation is the existence of an infinite ergodic universe, which, being infinite, must contain Hubble volumes realizing all initial conditions.

Accordingly, an infinite universe will contain an infinite number of Hubble volumes, all having the same physical laws and physical constants. In regard to configurations such as the distribution of matter, almost all will differ from our Hubble volume. However, because there are infinitely many, far beyond the cosmological horizon, there will eventually be Hubble volumes with similar, and even identical, configurations. Tegmark estimates that an identical volume to ours should be about 10¹⁰¹¹⁵ meters away from us.<ref name="X0302131"/>

Given infinite space, there would be an infinite number of Hubble volumes identical to ours in the universe.<ref name="TegmarkPUstaple">"Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations.", Tegmark, Max, Scientific American. May 2003; 288 (5): 40–51.</ref> This follows directly from the cosmological principle, wherein it is assumed that our Hubble volume is not special or unique.

Level II: Universes with different physical constants

In the eternal inflation theory, which is a variant of the cosmic inflation theory, the multiverse or space as a whole is stretching and will continue doing so forever,<ref>Template:Cite serial</ref> but some regions of space stop stretching and form distinct bubbles (like gas pockets in a loaf of rising bread). Such bubbles are embryonic level I multiverses.

Different bubbles may experience different spontaneous symmetry breaking, which results in different properties, such as different physical constants.<ref name="TegmarkPUstaple"/>

Level II also includes John Archibald Wheeler's oscillatory universe theory and Lee Smolin's fecund universes theory.

Level III: Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics

File:Schroedingers cat film.svg

Schrödinger's cat in the many-worlds interpretation, where a branching of the universe occurs through a superposition of two quantum mechanical states

Hugh Everett III's many-worlds interpretation (MWI) is one of several mainstream interpretations of quantum mechanics.

In brief, one aspect of quantum mechanics is that certain observations cannot be predicted absolutely. Instead, there is a range of possible observations, each with a different probability. According to the MWI, each of these possible observations corresponds to a different "world" within the Universal wavefunction, with each world as real as ours. Suppose a six-sided dice is thrown and that the result of the throw corresponds to observable quantum mechanics. All six possible ways the dice can fall correspond to six different worlds. In the case of the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment, both outcomes would be "real" in at least one "world".

Tegmark argues that a Level III multiverse does not contain more possibilities in the Hubble volume than a Level I or Level II multiverse. In effect, all the different worlds created by "splits" in a Level III multiverse with the same physical constants can be found in some Hubble volume in a Level I multiverse. Tegmark writes that, "The only difference between Level I and Level III is where your doppelgängers reside. In Level I they live elsewhere in good old three-dimensional space. In Level III they live on another quantum branch in infinite-dimensional Hilbert space."

Similarly, all Level II bubble universes with different physical constants can, in effect, be found as "worlds" created by "splits" at the moment of spontaneous symmetry breaking in a Level III multiverse.<ref name="TegmarkPUstaple"/> According to Yasunori Nomura,<ref name="Nomura"/> Raphael Bousso, and Leonard Susskind,<ref name="BoussoSusskind"/> this is because global spacetime appearing in the (eternally) inflating multiverse is a redundant concept. This implies that the multiverses of Levels I, II, and III are, in fact, the same thing. This hypothesis is referred to as "Multiverse = Quantum Many Worlds". According to Yasunori Nomura, this quantum multiverse is static, and time is a simple illusion.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Another version of the many-worlds idea is H. Dieter Zeh's many-minds interpretation.

Level IV: Ultimate ensemble

The ultimate mathematical universe hypothesis is Tegmark's own hypothesis.<ref name="Tegmark2014">Template:Cite book</ref>

This level considers all universes to be equally real which can be described by different mathematical structures.

Tegmark writes: Template:Quotation

He argues that this "implies that any conceivable parallel universe theory can be described at Level IV" and "subsumes all other ensembles, therefore brings closure to the hierarchy of multiverses, and there cannot be, say, a Level V."<ref name="X0302131">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Jürgen Schmidhuber, however, says that the set of mathematical structures is not even well-defined and that it admits only universe representations describable by constructive mathematics—that is, computer programs.

Schmidhuber explicitly includes universe representations describable by non-halting programs whose output bits converge after a finite time, although the convergence time itself may not be predictable by a halting program, due to the undecidability of the halting problem.<ref>J. Schmidhuber (1997): A Computer Scientist's View of Life, the Universe, and Everything. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp. 201–208, Springer: IDSIA – Dalle Molle Institute for Artificial Intelligence.</ref><ref>Template:Cite arXiv</ref><ref>J. Schmidhuber (2002): Hierarchies of generalized Kolmogorov complexities and nonenumerable universal measures computable in the limit. International Journal of Foundations of Computer Science 13 (4): 587–612. IDSIA – Dalle Molle Institute for Artificial Intelligence.</ref> He also explicitly discusses the more restricted ensemble of quickly computable universes.<ref>J. Schmidhuber (2002): The Speed Prior: A New Simplicity Measure Yielding Near-Optimal Computable Predictions. Proc. 15th Annual Conference on Computational Learning Theory (COLT 2002), Sydney, Australia, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, pp. 216–228. Springer: IDSIA – Dalle Molle Institute for Artificial Intelligence.</ref>

Brian Greene's nine types

Template:AnchorThe American theoretical physicist and string theorist Brian Greene discussed nine types of multiverses:<ref>Greene, Brian. The Hidden Reality: Parallel Universes and the Deep Laws of the Cosmos, 2011.</ref>

Quilted

The quilted multiverse works only in an infinite universe. With an infinite amount of space, every possible event will occur an infinite number of times. However, the speed of light prevents us from being aware of these other identical areas.

Inflationary

The inflationary multiverse is composed of various pockets in which inflation fields collapse and form new universes.

File:Brane theory.ogg

Animation showing the multiple brane universes in the bulk

Brane

The brane multiverse version postulates that our entire universe exists on a membrane (brane) which floats in a higher dimension or "bulk". In this bulk, there are other membranes with their own universes. These universes can interact with one another, and when they collide, the violence and energy produced is more than enough to give rise to a Big Bang. The branes float or drift near each other in the bulk, and every few trillion years, attracted by gravity or some other force we do not understand, collide and bang into each other. This repeated contact gives rise to multiple or "cyclic" Big Bangs. This particular hypothesis falls under the string theory umbrella as it requires extra spatial dimensions.

File:Cosmos-animation Friedmann-closed.gif

Cosmos animation of a cyclic universe

Cyclic

The cyclic multiverse has multiple branes that have collided, causing Big Bangs. The universes bounce back and pass through time until they are pulled back together and again collide, destroying the old contents and creating them anew.

Landscape

The landscape multiverse relies on string theory's Calabi–Yau spaces. Quantum fluctuations drop the shapes to a lower energy level, creating a pocket with a set of laws different from that of the surrounding space.

Quantum

The quantum multiverse creates a new universe when a diversion in events occurs, as in the real-worlds variant of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.

Holographic

The holographic multiverse is derived from the theory that the surface area of a space can encode the contents of the volume of the region.

Simulated

The simulated multiverse exists on complex computer systems that simulate entire universes. A related hypothesis, as put forward as a possibility by astronomer Avi Loeb, is that universes may be creatable in laboratories of advanced technological civilizations who have a theory of everything.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Other related hypotheses include brain in a vat<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>-type scenarios where the perceived universe is either simulated in a low-resource way or not perceived directly by the virtual/simulated inhabitant species.Template:Additional citation needed

Ultimate

The ultimate multiverse contains every mathematically possible universe under different laws of physics.

Twin-world models

File:Universe Antiuniverse model.png

Concept of a twin universe, with the beginning of time in the middle

There are models of two related universes that e.g. attempt to explain the baryon asymmetry – why there was more matter than antimatter at the beginning – with a mirror anti-universe.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> One two-universe cosmological model could explain the Hubble constant (H₀) tension via interactions between the two worlds. The "mirror world" would contain copies of all existing fundamental particles.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Another twin/pair-world or "bi-world" cosmology is shown to theoretically be able to solve the cosmological constant (Λ) problem, closely related to dark energy: two interacting worlds with a large Λ each could result in a small shared effective Λ.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite arXiv</ref>

Cyclic theories

Template:Main In several theories, there is a series of, in some cases infinite, self-sustaining cycles – typically a series of Big Crunches (or Big Bounces). However, the respective universes do not exist at once but are forming or following in a logical order or sequence, with key natural constituents potentially varying between universes (see § Anthropic principle).

M-theory

Template:See also A multiverse of a somewhat different kind has been envisaged within string theory and its higher-dimensional extension, M-theory.<ref>Template:Cite arXiv</ref>

These theories require the presence of 10 or 11 spacetime dimensions respectively. The extra six or seven dimensions may either be compactified on a very small scale, or our universe may simply be localized on a dynamical (3+1)-dimensional object, a D3-brane. This opens up the possibility that there are other branes which could support other universes.<ref name="Richard J Szabo 2004">Richard J. Szabo, An introduction to string theory and D-brane dynamics (2004).</ref><ref name="Maurizio Gasperini 2007">Maurizio Gasperini, Elements of String Cosmology (2007).</ref>

Black-hole cosmology

Template:Main Black-hole cosmology is a cosmological model in which the observable universe is the interior of a black hole existing as one of possibly many universes inside a larger universe.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> This includes the theory of white holes, which are on the opposite side of space-time.

Anthropic principle

Template:Main The concept of other universes has been proposed to explain how our own universe appears to be fine-tuned for conscious life as we experience it.

If there were a large (possibly infinite) number of universes, each with possibly different physical laws (or different fundamental physical constants), then some of these universes (even if very few) would have the combination of laws and fundamental parameters that are suitable for the development of matter, astronomical structures, elemental diversity, stars, and planets that can exist long enough for life to emerge and evolve.

The weak anthropic principle could then be applied to conclude that we (as conscious beings) would only exist in one of those few universes that happened to be finely tuned, permitting the existence of life with developed consciousness. Thus, while the probability might be extremely small that any particular universe would have the requisite conditions for life (as we understand life), those conditions do not require intelligent design as an explanation for the conditions in the Universe that promote our existence in it.

An early form of this reasoning is evident in Arthur Schopenhauer's 1844 work "Von der Nichtigkeit und dem Leiden des Lebens", where he argues that our world must be the worst of all possible worlds, because if it were significantly worse in any respect it could not continue to exist.<ref>Arthur Schopenhauer, "Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung" (in German), supplement to the 4th book "Von der Nichtigkeit und dem Leiden des Lebens" (in German). see also R. B. Haldane and J. Kemp's translation "On the Vanity and Suffering of Life", pp. 395–396.</ref>

Occam's razor

Proponents and critics disagree about how to apply Occam's razor. Critics argue that to postulate an almost infinite number of unobservable universes, just to explain our own universe, is contrary to Occam's razor.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, proponents argue that in terms of Kolmogorov complexity the proposed multiverse is simpler than a single idiosyncratic universe.<ref name="TegmarkPUstaple"/>

For example, multiverse proponent Max Tegmark argues: Template:Quotation

Possible worlds and real worlds

In any given set of possible universes – e.g. in terms of histories or variables of nature – not all may be ever realized, and some may be realized many times.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> For example, over infinite time there could, in some potential theories, be infinite universes, but only a small or relatively small real number of universes where humanity could exist and only one where it ever does exist (with a unique history).Template:Citation needed It has been suggested that a universe that "contains life, in the form it has on Earth, is in a certain sense radically non-ergodic, in that the vast majority of possible organisms will never be realized".<ref>Template:Cite arXiv</ref> On the other hand, some scientists, theories and popular works conceive of a multiverse in which the universes are so similar that humanity exists in many equally real separate universes but with varying histories.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

There is a debate about whether the other worlds are real in the many-worlds interpretation (MWI) of quantum mechanics. In Quantum Darwinism one does not need to adopt a MWI in which all of the branches are equally real.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Modal realism

Possible worlds are a way of explaining probability and hypothetical statements. Some philosophers, such as David Lewis, posit that all possible worlds exist and that they are just as real as the world we live in. This position is known as modal realism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

See also

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References

Footnotes Template:Notelist

Citations Template:Reflist

Further reading

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• Andrei Linde, The Self-Reproducing Inflationary Universe, Scientific American, November 1994 – Touches on multiverse concepts at the end of the article.

External links

• Interview with Tufts cosmologist Alex Vilenkin on his book, "Many Worlds in One: The Search for Other Universes" on the podcast and public radio interview program ThoughtCast. Template:Webarchive.
• Multiverse – an episode of the series In Our Time with Melvyn Bragg, on BBC Radio 4.
• Why There Might be Many More Universes Besides Our Own, by Phillip Ball, March 21, 2016, bbc.com.