Liberia
Template:Short description Template:About Template:Pp-move Template:Use mdy dates Template:Use Liberian English Template:Infobox country Liberia,Template:Efn officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the West African coast. It is bordered by Sierra Leone to its northwest, Guinea to its north, Ivory Coast to its east, and the Atlantic Ocean to its south and southwest. It has a population of around 5.5Template:Nbspmillion and covers an area of Template:Convert. The official language is English. Over 20 indigenous languages are spoken, reflecting the country's ethnic and cultural diversity. The capital and largest city is Monrovia.
Liberia began in the early 19th century as a project of the American Colonization Society (ACS), which believed that black people would face better chances for freedom and prosperity in Africa than in the United States.<ref name="AFP" /> Between 1822 and the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, more than 15,000 freed and free-born African Americans, along with 3,198 Afro-Caribbeans, relocated to Liberia.<ref name="TDIH">"July 26, 1847 Liberian independence proclaimed" Template:Webarchive, This Day In History, History website.</ref> Gradually developing an Americo-Liberian identity,<ref>Cooper, Helene, The House at Sugar Beach: In Search of a Lost African Childhood (United States: Simon and Schuster, 2008), p. 6</ref><ref>Liberia: History, Geography, Government, and Culture Template:Webarchive, Infoplease.com</ref> the settlers carried their culture and tradition with them while colonizing the indigenous population. Led by the Americo-Liberians, Liberia declared independence on July 26, 1847, which the U.S. did not recognize until February 5, 1862.
Liberia was the first African republic to proclaim its independence and is Africa's first and oldest modern republic. Along with Ethiopia, it was one of the two African countries to maintain its sovereignty and independence during the European colonial Scramble for Africa. Early 20th century Liberia saw large investment in rubber production by Firestone Tire and Rubber company. These investments led to large scale changes in Liberia’s economy, work force, and climate.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> During World War II, Liberia supported the U.S. war effort against Nazi Germany and in turn received considerable American investment in infrastructure, which aided the country's wealth and development.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> President William Tubman encouraged economic and political changes that heightened the country's prosperity and international profile; Liberia was a founding member of the League of Nations, United Nations, and the Organisation of African Unity.
The Americo-Liberian settlers did not relate well to the indigenous peoples they encountered. Colonial settlements were raided by the Kru and Grebo from their inland chiefdoms. Americo-Liberians formed into a small elite that held disproportionate political power, while indigenous Africans were excluded from birthright citizenship in their own land until 1904.<ref name="auto1">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Constitutional History">Template:Cite news</ref>
In 1980, political tensions from the rule of William Tolbert resulted in a military coup, marking the end of Americo-Liberian rule and the seizure of power of Liberia's first indigenous leader, Samuel Doe. Establishing a dictatorial regime, Doe was assassinated in 1990 in the context of the First Liberian Civil War which ran from 1989 until 1997 with the election of rebel leader Charles Taylor as president. In 1998, the Second Liberian Civil War erupted against his own dictatorship, and Taylor was overthrown by the end of the war in 2003. The two wars resulted in the deaths of 250,000 people (about 8% of the population) and the displacement of many more, with Liberia's economy shrinking by 90%.<ref name="veconomist" >Template:Cite news</ref> A peace agreement in 2003 led to democratic elections in 2005. The country has remained relatively stable since then.
Mining in Liberia has been a significant economic driver since the 1960’s, though it largely stopped during the Liberian civil wars. Since the end of the civil wars, mining activity increased with emphasis on industrial mining. Mining has also led to concerns about environmental degradation and environmental destruction such as deforestation, water pollution, and air pollution. Industrial miners' poor wages, working conditions, and living conditions have sparked protests from the beginning of the Liberian mining industry continuing to today.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":9" /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
History
[edit]Indigenous people
[edit]The presence of Oldowan artifacts in West Africa was confirmed by Michael Omolewa, attesting to the presence of ancient humans.<ref name="Omolewa">Template:Cite book</ref>
Undated Acheulean (ESA) artifacts are well documented across West Africa. The emerging chronometric record of the Middle Stone Age (MSA) indicates that core and flake technologies have been present in West Africa since at least the Chibanian (~780–126 thousand years ago or ka) in northern, open Sahelian zones, and that they persisted until the Terminal Pleistocene/Holocene boundary (~12 ka) in both northern and southern zones of West Africa. This makes them the youngest examples of such MSA technology anywhere in Africa. The presence of MSA populations in forests remains an open question. Technological differences may correlate with various ecological zones. Later Stone Age (LSA) populations evidence significant technological diversification, including both microlithic and macrolithic traditions.<ref name="Scerri">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The record shows that aceramic and ceramic LSA assemblages in West Africa overlap chronologically, and that changing densities of microlithic industries from the coast to the north are geographically structured. These features may represent social networks or some form of cultural diffusion allied to changing ecological conditions.<ref name="Scerri"/>
Microlithic industries with ceramics became common by the Mid-Holocene, coupled with an apparent intensification of wild food exploitation. Between ~4–3.5 ka, these societies gradually transformed into food producers, possibly through contact with northern pastoralists and agriculturalists, as the environment became more arid. Hunter-gatherers have survived in the more forested parts of West Africa until much later, attesting to the strength of ecological boundaries in this region.<ref name="Scerri"/>
Mande expansion
[edit]The Pepper Coast, also known as the Grain Coast, has been inhabited by indigenous peoples of Africa at least as far back as the 12th century. Mande-speaking people expanded from the north and east, forcing many smaller ethnic groups southward toward the Atlantic Ocean. The Dei, Bassa, Kru, Gola, and Kissi were some of the earliest documented peoples in the area.<ref name=introprof>Template:Cite journal</ref>
This influx of these groups was compounded by the decline of the Mali Empire in 1375 and the Songhai Empire in 1591. As inland regions underwent desertification, inhabitants moved to the wetter coast. These new inhabitants brought skills such as cotton spinning, cloth weaving, iron smelting, rice and sorghum cultivation, and social and political institutions from the Mali and Songhai empires.<ref name=introprof /> Shortly after the Mane conquered the region, the Vai people of the former Mali Empire immigrated into the Grand Cape Mount County region. The ethnic Kru opposed the influx of Vai, forming an alliance with the Mane to stop further influx of Vai.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
People along the coast built canoes and traded with other West Africans from Cap-Vert to the Gold Coast.
Early colonization
[edit]Template:Main Between 1461 and the late 17th century, Portuguese, Dutch, and British traders had contacts and trading posts in the region. The Portuguese named the area Costa da Pimenta ("Pepper Coast") but it later came to be known as the Grain Coast, due to the abundance of melegueta pepper grains.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The traders would barter commodities and goods with local people.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In the United States, there was a movement to settle African Americans, both free-born and formerly enslaved, in Africa. This was partially because they faced racial discrimination in the form of political disenfranchisement and the denial of civil, religious, and social rights.<ref>Howard Brotz, ed., African American Social & Political Thought 1850–1920 (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1996), 38–39.</ref> It was also partially because slave owners and politicians feared uprisings and rebellions of enslaved peoples. They believed these uprising would be motivated by a desire to achieve the freedoms experienced by formerly enslaved peoples, specifically freedom from violence and reunions with separated family.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Formed in 1816, the American Colonization Society (ACS) was made up mostly of Quakers and slaveholders. Quakers believed black people would face better chances for freedom in Africa than in the U.S.<ref name="AFP">"Background on conflict in Liberia" Template:Webarchive, Friends Committee on National Legislation, July 30, 2003</ref><ref name="Sale">Maggie Montesinos Sale (1997). The Slumbering Volcano: American Slave Ship Revolts and the Production of Rebellious Masculinity, Duke University Press, 1997, p. 264. Template:ISBN</ref> While slaveholders opposed freedom for enslaved people, some viewed "repatriation" of free people of color as a way to avoid slave rebellions.<ref name="AFP" />
In 1822, the American Colonization Society began sending free people of color to the Pepper Coast voluntarily to establish a colony. Mortality from tropical diseases was high—of the 4,571 emigrants who arrived in Liberia between 1820 and 1843, only 1,819 survived.<ref name="Shick 1971">Template:Cite journalTemplate:Dead link</ref><ref name="Shick 1980">Template:Cite book</ref> By 1867, the ACS (and state-related chapters) had assisted in the migration of more than 13,000 people of color from the United States and the Caribbean to Liberia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> These free African Americans and their descendants married within their community and came to identify as Americo-Liberians. Many were of mixed race and educated in American culture; they did not identify with the indigenous natives of the tribes they encountered. They developed an ethnic group that had a cultural tradition infused with American notions of political republicanism and Protestant Christianity.<ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref>
According to historian Henryatta Ballah, indigenous Liberian cosmology was centralized around the existence of a supreme being and its worship through specific deities and ancestral spirits that they believed acted as intermediaries between themselves and the supreme being. Certain pieces of land were considered to be part of the spiritual land and were central to Indigenous Liberians’ resistance to their loss of land through colonization. Americo-Liberians and the American Colonization Society sought to eradicate all forms of Indigenous religious practices as a form of forced assimilation and to aid in their acquisition of land and political power. The term “witchcraft” was used to describe all Indigenous cosmologies in Liberia and many missionaries described these religious practices as the most barbaric practices of all “native tribes”. These ideas about Indigenous Liberian cosmologies drove large scale assimilation in the country beginning in the 1820’s and continuing for decades.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>
The ACS, supported by prominent American politicians such as Abraham Lincoln, Henry Clay, and James Monroe, believed "repatriation" was preferable to having emancipated slaves remain in the United States.<ref name="Sale"/> Similar state-based organizations established colonies in Mississippi-in-Africa, Kentucky in Africa, and the Republic of Maryland, which Liberia later annexed. Lincoln in 1862 described Liberia as only "in a certain sense...a success", and proposed instead that free people of color be assisted to emigrate to Chiriquí, today part of Panama.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The Americo-Liberian settlers did not relate well to the indigenous peoples they encountered, especially those in communities of the more isolated "bush". The colonial settlements were raided by the Kru and Grebo from their inland chiefdoms. Encounters with tribal Africans in the bush often became violent. Believing themselves different from and culturally and educationally superior to the indigenous peoples, the Americo-Liberians developed as an elite minority that created and held on to political power. The Americo-Liberian settlers adopted clothing such as hoop skirts and tailcoats and generally viewed themselves as culturally and socially superior to indigenous Africans.<ref name="Smithsonian">Template:Cite journal</ref> Indigenous tribesmen did not enjoy birthright citizenship in their own land until 1904.<ref name="Constitutional History"/>
Political formation
[edit]_Residence_of_Joseph_Roberts,_President_of_the_Republic_of_Liberia.jpg){kind=link}
On July 26, 1847, the settlers issued a Declaration of Independence and promulgated a constitution. Based on the political principles of the United States Constitution, it established the independent Republic of Liberia.<ref name=volume> Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> On August 24, Liberia adopted its 11-striped national flag.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The United Kingdom was the first country to recognize Liberia's independence.<ref name="Ricks">"How a former slave gave a quilt to Queen Victoria" Template:Webarchive. BBC. July 11, 2017</ref> The United States did not recognize Liberia until 1862, after the Southern states, which had strong political power in the American government, declared their secession and the formation of the Confederacy.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The leadership of the new nation consisted largely of the Americo-Liberians, who at the beginning established political and economic dominance in the coastal areas that the ACS had purchased; they maintained relations with the United States and contacts in developing these areas and the resulting trade. Their passage of the 1865 Ports of Entry Act prohibited foreign commerce with the inland tribes, ostensibly to "encourage the growth of civilized values" before such trade was allowed in the region.<ref name=volume/>
_Departure_of_colored_emigrants_for_Liberia_-_The_Illustrated_American,_March_21,_1896.jpg){kind=link}
By 1877, the True Whig Party was the country's most powerful political entity.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It was made up primarily of Americo-Liberians, who maintained social, economic and political dominance well into the 20th century, repeating patterns of European colonists in other nations in Africa. Competition for office was usually contained within the party; a party nomination virtually ensured election.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Pressure from the United Kingdom, which controlled Sierra Leone to the northwest, and France, with its interests in the north and east, led to a loss of Liberia's claims to extensive territories. Both Sierra Leone and the Ivory Coast annexed territories.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Liberia struggled to attract investment to develop infrastructure and a larger, industrial economy.
There was a decline in the production of Liberian goods in the late 19th century, and the government struggled financially, resulting in indebtedness on a series of international loans.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> On July 16, 1892, Martha Ann Erskine Ricks met Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle and presented her with a handmade quilt, Liberia's first diplomatic gift. Born into slavery in Tennessee, Ricks said, "I had heard it often, from the time I was a child, how good the Queen had been to my people—to slaves—and how she wanted us to be free."<ref name="Ricks"/>
Early 20th century
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World Wars and interwar period
[edit]Template:Further In the early 1900’s, Liberia’s export trade and merchant class largely collapsed. After the partition of Africa between the European powers in the 1800’s, American businesses abandoned trade with Liberia and turned to Latin America for tropical commodities. This abrupt change coupled with Liberia’s weak trading links between Britain and France caused Liberia to sink into ‘economic insignificance.’<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Despite this, some trade relations remained between Liberia and Germany, largely due to Germany’s lack of tropical colonies.<ref name=":2" />
At the beginning of the 20th century Germany was the only major country with an interest in Liberian trade. By 1914, Germany owned one of the two banks in Liberia as these trade routes strengthened. At the beginning of the first World War, the British Navy cut off German trade with Liberia, effectively severing all Liberian trade. In 1917, Liberia declared war on Germany following the U.S. in the hopes of receiving financial aid from the Allied Powers, specifically the United States.<ref name=":2" />
Subsequently, it was one of 32 nations to take part in the Versailles Peace Conference in 1919, which ended the war and established the League of Nations; Liberia was among the few African and non-Western nations to participate in the conference and the founding of the league.<ref name="Heffinck">Template:Cite web</ref>
Though aid from the United States was promised to Liberia in the amount of $5 million, congress refused to sanction an official loan after the end of the first World War. When this aid did not come and trade continued to dwindle, Liberia was forced to borrow from the Bank of British West Africa, furthering its debt from the $800,000 it owed in 1904. These financial difficulties helped pave the way for multinational foreign investment companies, specifically those interested in rubber, to make their way into Liberia in the 1920’s.<ref name=":2" />
In the early 1920’s, the British Empire controlled 67 percent of rubber output. As a result of the depression of 1921-1922, rubber prices fell. In order to protect British plantations, the British Empire placed export duties on rubber. In response, Firestone Tire and Rubber Company looked to begin a rubber plantation in Liberia. Liberia’s precarious financial situation and tensions with European powers following the first World War put them at risk for a losing conflict with the United Kingdom and France. Because of this, Liberia agreed to a 99 year lease on one million acres of land in exchange for Firestone’s aid in the liquidation of Liberia’s indebtedness. This eased tensions with the European banks to whom Liberia owed money and allowed Liberia to focus economically on infrastructure and defense. Despite this exchange, Liberia and its peoples were hesitant about the agreement due to Firestone’s proposed extensive involvement in the Liberian economy and government. Regardless of opposition, Liberia was unable to separate Firestone’s involvement in the Country’s financial and governmental sectors due to the company’s financial aid and Lieria’s debt. Liberia eventually agreed to Firestone’s terms at the urging of the United States government. The onset of the 1929 depression in the United States caused an extreme drop in the price of rubber, significantly lowering rubber plantations’ expected revenue. In light of this, Liberia sought to relieve itself of its repayment obligations to Firestone. Firestone was not responsive to the Librarian's requests, and in December 1932 Liberia unilaterally suspended repayment. Work on the plantation was suspended, and Firestone called on the U.S. government to send a warship to Monrovia. The dispute was settled in 1935, with Firestone advancing $650,000 to Liberia and gaining exemption from the export tax and from personal income tax on its expatriate employees for the rest of the time it took to repay the loan.<ref name=":2" />
Firestone was confronted with labor force issues within its Liberia plantations. The Liberian people had, up to that point, largely participated in subsistence agriculture and did not participate in a market economy. This made it difficult for Firestone to develop a wage-labor force. In response, the company attempted to redesign Liberia’s economic and labor system through impressment, tax systems designed to pry labor out of the traditional economy by creating need for cash income, and forced labor. Because of Firestone’s existence as the only major employer besides the Liberian government, these exploitative systems existed until they were abolished in the 1970’s. However, scholars such as Animesh Ghoshal argue that these colonial structures still exist today in different forms.<ref name=":2" />
In 1927, the country's elections again showed the power of the True Whig Party, with electoral proceedings that have been called some of the most rigged ever;<ref>Elections Chief Hints Slashing Numbers of Mushrooming Parties for 2005 Polls New Democrat</ref> the winning candidate was declared to have received votes amounting to more than 15 times the number of eligible voters.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref> (The loser actually received around 60% of the eligible vote.)<ref name=":1"/>
Soon after, allegations of modern slavery in Liberia led the League of Nations to establish the Christy Commission. Findings included government involvement in widespread "forced or compulsory labour". Minority ethnic groups especially were exploited in a system that enriched well-connected elites.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> As a result of the report, President Charles D. B. King and Vice President Allen N. Yancy resigned.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In the mid-20th century, Liberia gradually began to modernize with American assistance. During World War II, the United States made major infrastructure improvements to support its military efforts in Africa and Europe against Germany. It built the Freeport of Monrovia and Roberts International Airport under the Lend-Lease program before its entry into the Second World War.<ref name="opendoor">Template:Cite journal</ref>
In 1944, former United States president Harry Truman announced his “Open Door” policy. This policy, which encouraged foreign investment, gave Liberia an attractive climate for foreign investment and increased involvement of multinational foreign investment in the country. Despite this, Firestone remained and still remains one of the largest influences on the Liberian economy. This influence has raised concerns in regards to the effects of foreign investment on Liberia’s political and economic policies. Economists such as Elliot Berg have stated that economic growth may be confined to export goods with foreign producers, which removes some of Liberia’s economic autonomy.<ref name=":2" /> In international affairs, it was a founding member of the United Nations, a vocal critic of South African apartheid,<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> a proponent of African independence from European colonial powers, and a supporter of Pan-Africanism. Liberia also helped to fund the Organisation of African Unity.<ref>
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Late 20th-century political instability
[edit]On April 12, 1980, a military coup led by Master Sergeant Samuel Doe of the Krahn ethnic group overthrew and killed President William R. Tolbert Jr. Doe and the other plotters later executed most of Tolbert's cabinet and other Americo-Liberian government officials and True Whig Party members on a Monrovia beach.<ref name=global>Template:Cite web</ref> The coup leaders formed the People's Redemption Council (PRC) to govern the country.<ref name=global/> A strategic Cold War ally of the West, Doe received significant financial backing from the United States while critics condemned the PRC for corruption and political repression.<ref name=global/>
After Liberia adopted a new constitution in 1985, Doe was elected president in subsequent elections that were internationally condemned as fraudulent.<ref name=global/> On November 12, 1985, a failed coup was launched by Thomas Quiwonkpa, whose soldiers briefly occupied the national radio station.<ref name=notes>Template:Cite magazine</ref> Government repression intensified in response, as Doe's troops responded by executing members of the Gio and Mano ethnic groups in Nimba County.<ref name=notes/>
The National Patriotic Front of Liberia, a rebel group led by Charles Taylor, launched an insurrection in December 1989 against Doe's government with the backing of neighboring countries such as Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast. This triggered the First Liberian Civil War.<ref> Template:Cite book</ref> By September 1990, Doe's forces controlled only a small area just outside the capital, and Doe was captured and executed in that month by rebel forces.<ref name=bbc>Template:Cite news</ref>
The rebels soon split into conflicting factions. The Economic Community Monitoring Group under the Economic Community of West African States organized an armed intervention.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Between 1989 and 1997, around 60,000 to 80,000 Liberians died, and, by 1996, around 700,000 others had been displaced into refugee camps in neighboring countries.<ref>World Peace Foundation, Mass Atrocity Endings: Liberia Template:Webarchive, Medford, Massachusetts: Tufts University, August 7, 2015. Retrieved June 7, 2020</ref> A peace deal between warring parties was reached in 1995, leading to Taylor's election as president in 1997.<ref name=bbc/>
Under Taylor's leadership, Liberia became a pariah state due to its use of blood diamonds and illegal timber exports to fund the Revolutionary United Front in the Sierra Leone Civil War.<ref name=warrant>Template:Cite news</ref> The Second Liberian Civil War began in 1999 when Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy, a rebel group based in the northwest of the country, launched an armed insurrection against Taylor.<ref name=cbc>Template:Cite news</ref>
21st century
[edit]In March 2003, a second rebel group, Movement for Democracy in Liberia, began launching attacks against Taylor from the southeast.<ref name=cbc/> Peace talks between the factions began in Accra in June of that year, and Taylor was indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) for crimes against humanity the same month.<ref name=warrant/> By July 2003, the rebels had launched an assault on Monrovia.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Under heavy pressure from the international community and the domestic Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace movement,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Taylor resigned in August 2003 and went into exile in Nigeria.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> A peace deal was signed later that month.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The United Nations Mission in Liberia began arriving in September 2003 to provide security and monitor the peace accord,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and an interim government took power the following October.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The subsequent 2005 elections were internationally regarded as the freest and fairest in Liberian history.<ref name=freedom/> Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, a US-educated economist, former Minister of Finance and future Nobel Peace Prize winner, was elected as the first female president in Africa.<ref name=freedom/> Upon her inauguration, Sirleaf requested the extradition of Taylor from Nigeria and transferred him to the SCSL for trial in The Hague.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In 2006, the government established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to address the causes and crimes of the civil war.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2011, July 26 was proclaimed by President Sirleaf as National Independence Day.<ref>Template:Cite press release</ref> In October 2011, peace activist Leymah Gbowee received the Nobel Peace Prize in her work of leading a women's peace movement that brought to an end to the Second Liberian Civil War in 2003.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In November 2011, President Sirleaf was re-elected for a second six-year term.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Following the 2017 Liberian general election, former professional football striker George Weah, considered one of the greatest African players of all time,<ref name="journey">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> was sworn in as president on January 22, 2018, becoming the fourth youngest serving president in Africa.<ref name="Listwand">Template:Cite news</ref> The inauguration marked Liberia's first fully democratic transition in 74 years.<ref name="BBC News">Template:Cite news</ref> Weah cited fighting corruption, reforming the economy, combating illiteracy, and improving living conditions as the main targets of his presidency.<ref name="BBC News"/> Opposition leader Joseph Boakai defeated Weah in the tightly contested 2023 presidential election.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> On 22 January 2024, Boakai was sworn in as Liberia's new president.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Template:Clear left
Geography
[edit]
Liberia is situated in West Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean to the country's southwest. It lies between latitudes 4° and 9°N, and longitudes 7° and 12°W.
The landscape is characterized by mostly flat to rolling coastal plains that contain mangroves and swamps, which rise to a rolling plateau and low mountains in the northeast.<ref name="eowg">Template:Cite book</ref>
Tropical rainforests cover the hills, while elephant grass and semi-deciduous forests make up the dominant vegetation in the northern sections.<ref name="eowg"/>
Liberia's watershed tends to move in a southwestern pattern toward the sea as new rains move down the forested plateau off the inland mountain range of Guinée Forestière, in Guinea. Cape Mount near the border with Sierra Leone receives the most precipitation in the nation.<ref name="eowg"/>
Liberia's main northwestern boundary is traversed by the Mano River while its southeast limits are bounded by the Cavalla River.<ref name="eowg"/> Liberia's three largest rivers are St. Paul exiting near Monrovia, the river St. John at Buchanan, and the Cestos River, all of which flow into the Atlantic. The Cavalla is the longest river in the nation at Template:Convert.<ref name="eowg"/>
The highest point wholly within Liberia is Mount Wuteve at Template:Convert above sea level in the northwestern Liberia range of the West Africa Mountains and the Guinea Highlands.<ref name="eowg"/> Mount Nimba, near Yekepa, is higher at Template:Convert above sea level, but is not wholly within Liberia as Nimba is located at the point where Liberia borders both Guinea and Ivory Coast. Nimba is thus the tallest mountain in those countries, as well.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Climate
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The equatorial climate, in the south of the country, is hot year-round with heavy rainfall from May to October with a short interlude in mid-July to August.<ref name="eowg"/> During the winter months of November to March, dry dust-laden harmattan winds blow inland, causing many problems for residents.<ref name="eowg"/> Climate change in Liberia causes many problems as Liberia is particularly vulnerable to climate change. Like many other countries in Africa, Liberia both faces existing environmental issues, as well as sustainable development challenges.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Because of its location in Africa, it is vulnerable to extreme weather, the coastal effects of sea level rise, and changing water systems and water availability.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref> Climate change is expected to severely impact the economy of Liberia, especially agriculture, fisheries, and forestry. Liberia has been an active participant in international and local policy changes related to climate change.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Rubber production, along with Liberia’s large-scale production of palm-oil, has impacted the Country’s climate. Clearing tropical forest to create farmland has led to a loss of biodiversity and the release of large amounts of greenhouse gases. Despite this, fertilizer use has been the main contributor to the carbon footprint of latex, which is a crucial ingredient in rubber production. According to the president of the Rubber Planters Association of Liberia, Wilhelmina G. Mulbah, high prices and lack of availability of fertilizers have led to almost no fertilizer use among small farmers. Because of this, much of the carbon footprint of latex due to fertilizer use can be contributed to rubber plantations. According to a study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the expanse of rubber production into forestland could lead to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions caused by deforestation and fertilizer use.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Palm oil production also has impacts on the Liberian climate. Industrial oil palm plantations reduce the amount of land available to surrounding communities for sustenance agriculture. Deforestation has led to a decrease in the availability of bushmeat, impacting household diets and affecting incomes of families who sell bushmeat. Changes in water resource use have decreased water availability for local households and communities, specifically those located near palm oil plantations.<ref name=":7">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Liberia’s mining industry has also been linked to changes in the Liberian environment and climate. The mining industry and water resources are critically linked, as mining uses substantial amounts of water, and the industry also has major impacts on surface and ground water resources. With renewed interest in Liberia’s mining sector after the end of their second civil war, there was a reopening of major mines such as the Nimba iron mine. These actions have raised concern over their potential impacts on water quality, human health, and ecosystem health due to waste rocks, water use, and increased sediment load due to high erosion potential of soil. This erosion and runoff have raised further concerns about the discharge of toxic substances, such as cyanides and heavy metals including acid mine drainage (AMD) that can cause long term impairment to watercourses and biodiversity.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Communities in Liberia have experienced a significant reduction in forest reserves and access to water since oil palm operations began. This has negatively impacted access to foods such as bushmeat and native plants. The Malaysian corporation, Sime Darby, was fined by the Liberian Environmental Protection Agency for deforestation near rivers, which has impacted food and water access for locals. Rubber production has caused similar land use and food access challenges for local communities. Liberia’s mining sector has similarly inhibited access to water and arable farmland.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Biodiversity and conservation
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Forests on the coastline are composed mostly of salt-tolerant mangrove trees, while the more sparsely populated inland has forests opening onto a plateau of drier grasslands. The climate is equatorial, with significant rainfall during the May–October rainy season and harsh harmattan winds the remainder of the year. Liberia possesses about forty percent of the remaining Upper Guinean rainforest. It was an important producer of rubber in the early 20th century.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref> Liberian rubber production became a major economic driver in the early 20th century with Firestone Tire and Rubber Company’s investment in the Country in the early 1920’s. Despite its importance as an export good, Liberia’s rubber industry has faced criticism for the environmental degradation it causes. The need for land for rubber plantations has led to deforestation, reducing Liberia’s biodiversity and food access for Liberian peoples. Fertilizer use on rubber plantations has contributed to waterway pollution and an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, causing damage to aquatic ecosystems and health problems for local Liberian communities.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />
Four terrestrial ecoregions lie within Liberia's borders: Guinean montane forests, Western Guinean lowland forests, Guinean forest–savanna mosaic, and Guinean mangroves.<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">Template:Cite journal</ref>
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Liberia is a global biodiversity hotspot—a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans.<ref name="mmg">Template:Cite news</ref>
Endangered species are hunted for human consumption as bushmeat in Liberia.<ref name="Anne Look"/> Species hunted for food in Liberia include elephants, pygmy hippopotamus, chimpanzees, leopards, duikers, and other monkeys.<ref name="Anne Look"/> Bushmeat is often exported to neighboring Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast, despite a ban on the cross-border sale of wild animals.<ref name="Anne Look">Anne Look, "Poaching in Liberia's Forests Threatens Rare Animals", Voice of America News, May 8, 2012.</ref>
Bushmeat is widely eaten in Liberia, and is considered a delicacy.<ref name="Wynfred Russell"/> A 2004 public opinion survey found that bushmeat ranked second behind fish amongst residents of the capital Monrovia as a preferred source of protein.<ref name="Wynfred Russell"/> Of households where bushmeat was served, 80% of residents said they cooked it "once in a while," while 13% cooked it once a week and 7% cooked bushmeat daily.<ref name="Wynfred Russell"/> The survey was conducted during the last civil war, and bushmeat consumption is now believed to be far higher.<ref name="Wynfred Russell">Wynfred Russell, "Extinction is forever: A crisis that is Liberia's endangered wildlife" Template:Webarchive, Front Page Africa, January 15, 2014.</ref>
Trypanosoma brucei gambiense is endemic in some animal hosts here including both domestic and wild.<ref name="Trypanosoma-brucei-gambiense"/> This causes the disease nagana.<ref name="Trypanosoma-brucei-gambiense"/> In pigs here and in Ivory Coast, that includes Tbg group 1. Tbg and its vector Glossina palpalis gambiense are a constant presence in the rainforests here.<ref name="Trypanosoma-brucei-gambiense"/> Much research into Tbg was performed in the 1970s by Mehlitz and by Gibson, both working in Bong Mine with samples from around the country.<ref name="Trypanosoma-brucei-gambiense"/> The West African pariah dog is also a host for Tbg.<ref name="Trypanosoma-brucei-gambiense">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is a constant presence here.<ref name="Bulletin-2021">Template:Cite web</ref>
The Hairy Slit-Faced Bat (Nycteris hispida) suffers from malaria here.<ref name="Manwell">Template:Cite journal</ref>
According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), about 99.5% of Liberian peoples rely on biomass (firewood, charcoal and palm oil) for their energy needs. This trend poses a threat to biodiversity and forests, since the production of these fuels is done in an unsustainable manner. Much of this fuel is obtained through deforestation or mining, both of which have been shown to have negative impacts on the Liberian environment. This production is largely driven by foreign multinational corporations.<ref name=":4">Brandolini, G., & Tigani, M. (2006). Liberia environmental profile. Report for the European Commission and the, 1-110.</ref> Pre-colonial Liberia was largely a self-sufficient society. However, according to scholar Aminesh Ghoshal, colonists and multinational corporations altered Liberian labor and economic systems in order to secure a labor force for commercial activities like mining or plantation agriculture.<ref name=":2" />
Illegal logging has increased in Liberia since the end of the Second Civil War in 2003.<ref name="mmg"/> In 2012, President Sirleaf granted licenses to companies to cut down 58% of all the primary rainforest left in Liberia.<ref name="mmg"/> After international protests, many of those logging permits were canceled.<ref name="mmg"/> In September 2014, Liberia and Norway struck an agreement whereby Liberia ceased all logging in exchange for $150 million in development aid.<ref name="mmg"/>
Palm oil production has motivated deforestation of large swaths of Liberian rainforests. Industrial oil palm plantations boast lower levels of plant and animal biodiversity and have lower ecological and social values than the rainforests which they replace. These values include communal space, health, and ecological health. Industrial palm oil production often uses oil palm plants that are not native to Liberia, though native plants have been used in palm oil production, largely by indigenous or small-scale farmers. These changes have impacted the food supply and livelihoods of Liberian communities and households through depleting food sources and abilities of Liberians to acquire and sell natural resources.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Liberia’s mining sector has been criticized by environmental scholars and the Liberian Environmental Protection Agency for its effects on conservation and biodiversity. In contrast to the abundance of mineral wealth in Liberia, water resources are vulnerable to environmental impacts from mining activities. Unless appropriate corrective actions are taken, the mining sector is expected to place further degradation on the country’s undeveloped water resources.<ref name=":5" /> Forest areas are used for the deposit of waste rocks from many Liberian mines, especially after the end of the second civil war. Overburden, rocks and tailings are deposited in the surrounding forest areas, especially around major mines such as the Nimba mine. This poses a threat to wildlife and ecological balance in these areas.<ref name=":4" />
A large contributor to pollution has been foreign involvement in industrial mining and agriculture industries.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" />
Administrative divisions
[edit]Template:Main Template:Counties of Liberia Image Map
Liberia is divided into fifteen counties, which, in turn, are subdivided into a total of 90 districts and further subdivided into clans. The oldest counties are Grand Bassa and Montserrado, both founded in 1839 prior to Liberian independence. Gbarpolu is the newest county, created in 2001. Nimba is the largest of the counties in size at Template:Convert, while Montserrado is the smallest at Template:Convert.<ref name="census2008"/> Montserrado is also the most populous county with 1,144,806 residents as of the 2008 census.<ref name="census2008"/>
The fifteen counties are administered by superintendents appointed by the president. The Constitution calls for the election of various chiefs at the county and local level, but these elections have not taken place since 1985 due to war and financial constraints.<ref name=polls>Template:Cite news</ref>
Parallel to the administrative divisions of the country are the local and municipal divisions. Liberia currently does not have any constitutional framework or uniform statutes which deal with the creation or revocation of local governments.<ref name="GCL">Template:Cite web</ref> All existing local governments—cities, townships, and a borough—were created by specific acts of the Liberian government, and thus the structure and duties/responsibilities of each local government vary greatly from one to the other.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Government and politics
[edit]
The government of Liberia, modeled on the government of the United States, is a unitary constitutional republic and representative democracy as established by the Constitution. The government has three co-equal branches of government: the executive, headed by the president; the legislative, consisting of the bicameral Legislature of Liberia; and the judicial, consisting of the Supreme Court and several lower courts.<ref name="CIA"/>
The president serves as head of government, head of state, and the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of Liberia.<ref name="CIA"/> Among the president's other duties are to sign or veto legislative bills, grant pardons, and appoint Cabinet members, judges, and other public officials. Together with the vice president, the president is elected to a six-year term by majority vote in a two-round system and can serve up to two terms in office.<ref name="CIA"/>
The Legislature is composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The House, led by a speaker, has 73 members apportioned among the 15 counties on the basis of the national census, with each county receiving a minimum of two members.<ref name="CIA"/> Each House member represents an electoral district within a county as drawn by the National Elections Commission and is elected by a plurality of the popular vote of their district into a six-year term. The Senate is made up of two senators from each county for a total of 30 senators.<ref name="CIA"/> Senators serve nine-year terms and are elected at-large by a plurality of the popular vote.<ref name="CIA"/> The vice president serves as the President of the Senate, with a President pro tempore serving in their absence.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Liberia's highest judicial authority is the Supreme Court, made up of five members and headed by the Chief Justice of Liberia. Members are nominated to the court by the president and are confirmed by the Senate, serving until the age of 70. The judiciary is further divided into circuit and speciality courts, magistrate courts, and justices of the peace.<ref name=state>Template:Cite web</ref> The judicial system is a blend of common law, based on Anglo-American law, and customary law.<ref name="CIA"/> An informal system of traditional courts still exists within the rural areas of the country, with trial by ordeal remaining common despite being officially outlawed.<ref name=state/>
From 1877 to 1980, the government was dominated by the True Whig Party.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Today, over 20 political parties are registered in the country, based largely around personalities and ethnic groups.<ref name=freedom/> Most parties suffer from poor organizational capacity.<ref name=freedom/> The 2005 elections marked the first time that the president's party did not gain a majority of seats in the Legislature.<ref name=freedom/> According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Liberia is ranked 65th electoral democracy worldwide and 9th electoral democracy in Africa.<ref name="vdem_dataset">Template:Cite web</ref>
Military
[edit]Template:Main The Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL) have 2,010 active personnel as of 2023, with most of them organized into the 23rd Infantry Brigade, consisting of two infantry battalions, one engineer company, and one military police company. There is also a small National Coast Guard with 60 personnel and several patrol ships.<ref name="iiss2023">Template:Cite book</ref> The AFL used to have an Air Wing, but all of its aircraft and facilities have been out of operation since the civil wars. It is in the process of reactivating its Air Wing with help from the Nigerian Air Force.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Liberia has deployed peacekeepers to other countries since 2013 as part of UN or ECOWAS missions, with the largest being an infantry unit in Mali, and smaller numbers of personnel in Sudan, Guinea-Bissau, and South Sudan. About 800 of the AFL's 2,000 personnel have been deployed to Mali in several rotations before the UN mission there ended in December 2023.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2022 the country had a military budget of US$18.7 million.<ref name="iiss2023"/>
The old military was disbanded after the civil wars and entirely rebuilt, starting in 2005, with assistance and funding from the United States. The military assistance program, which became known as Operation Onward Liberty in 2010, provided training with the goal of making the AFL into an apolitical and professional military. The operation ended in 2016, though the Michigan National Guard still continues to work with the AFL as part of the U.S. National Guard's State Partnership Program.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Foreign relations
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Template:Further After the turmoil following the First and Second Liberian Civil Wars, Liberia's internal stabilization in the 21st century brought a return to cordial relations with neighboring countries and much of the Western world. As in other African countries, China is an important part of the post-conflict reconstruction.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In the past, both of Liberia's neighbors, Guinea and Sierra Leone, have accused Liberia of backing rebels in their countries.<ref name="hrw"/>
Law enforcement and crime
[edit]Template:Further The Liberian National Police is the country's national police force. As of October 2007 it has 844 officers in 33 stations in Montserrado County, which contains Monrovia.<ref name="cdaMontserrado">Template:Cite news</ref> The National Police Training Academy is in Paynesville City.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> A history of corruption among police officers diminishes public trust and operational effectiveness. The internal security is characterized by a general lawlessness coupled with the danger that former combatants in the late civil war might reestablish militias to challenge the civil authorities.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Rape and sexual assault are frequent in the post-conflict era in Liberia. Liberia has one of the highest incidences of sexual violence against women in the world. Rape is the most frequently reported crime, accounting for more than one-third of sexual violence cases. Adolescent girls are the most frequently assaulted, and almost 40% of perpetrators are adult men known to victims.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Both male and female homosexuality are illegal in Liberia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> On July 20, 2012, the Liberian senate voted unanimously to enact legislation to prohibit and criminalize same-sex marriages.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Corruption
[edit]Template:Further Corruption is endemic at every level of the Liberian government.<ref name="2010 Human Rights Report: Liberia">Template:Cite web</ref> When President Sirleaf took office in 2006, she announced that corruption was "the major public enemy."<ref name="hrw">"Liberia: Police Corruption Harms Rights, Progress" Template:Webarchive, Human Rights Watch, August 22, 2013.</ref> In 2014, the US ambassador to Liberia said that corruption there was harming people through "unnecessary costs to products and services that are already difficult for many Liberians to afford".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
As of 2010, Liberia was one of the most politically corrupt nations in the world.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> This score represented a significant improvement since 2007, when the country scored 2.1 and ranked 150th of 180 countries.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> When dealing with public-facing government functionaries, 89% of Liberians say they have had to pay a bribe, the highest national percentage in the world according to the organization's 2010 Global Corruption Barometer.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Economy
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The Central Bank of Liberia is responsible for printing and maintaining the Liberian dollar, Liberia's primary currency (the United States dollar is also legal tender in Liberia).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Liberia is one of the world's poorest countries, with a formal employment rate of 15%.<ref name=state/> GDP per capita peaked in 1980 at US$496, (~$Template:Format price in Template:Inflation/year) when it was comparable to Egypt's (at the time).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2011, the country's nominal GDP was US$1.154 billion, while nominal GDP per capita stood at US$297, the third-lowest in the world.<ref name=IMF_GDP>Template:Cite web</ref> Historically the Liberian economy has depended heavily on foreign aid, foreign direct investment and exports of natural resources such as iron ore, rubber, and timber.<ref name="eowg"/>
Trends
[edit]Following a peak in growth in 1979, the Liberian economy began a steady decline due to economic mismanagement after the 1980 coup.<ref name=challenges>Template:Cite web</ref> This decline was accelerated by the outbreak of civil war in 1989; GDP was reduced by an estimated 90% between 1989 and 1995, one of the fastest declines in modern history.<ref name=challenges/> Upon the end of the war in 2003, GDP growth began to accelerate, reaching 9.4% in 2007.<ref name=imf>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2009, during the Great Recession GDP growth slowed to 4.6%,<ref name=imf/> though a strengthening agricultural sector led by rubber and timber exports increased growth to 5.1% in 2010 and an expected 7.3% in 2011, making the economy one of the 20 fastest-growing in the world.<ref name=consultation>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="agi">Template:Cite web</ref>
Current impediments to growth include a small domestic market, lack of adequate infrastructure, high transportation costs, poor trade links with neighboring countries, and the high dollarization of the economy.<ref name=consultation/> Liberia used the United States dollar as its currency from 1943 until 1982 and continues to use the U.S. dollar alongside the Liberian dollar.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Following a decrease in inflation beginning in 2003, inflation spiked in 2008 as a result of worldwide food and energy crises,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> reaching 17.5% before declining to 7.4% in 2009.<ref name=imf/> Liberia's external debt was estimated in 2006 at approximately $4.5 billion, 800% of GDP.<ref name=challenges/> As a result of bilateral, multilateral and commercial debt relief from 2007 to 2010, the country's external debt fell to $222.9 million by 2011.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
While official commodity exports declined during the 1990s as many investors fled the civil war, Liberia's wartime economy featured the exploitation of the region's diamond wealth.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The country acted as a major trader in Sierra Leonian blood diamonds, exporting over US$300 million (~$Template:Format price in Template:Inflation/year) in diamonds in 1999.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> This led to a United Nations ban on Liberian diamond exports in 2001, which was lifted in 2007 following Liberia's accession to the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In 2003, additional UN sanctions were placed on Liberian timber exports, which had risen from US$5 million in 1997 to over US$100 million in 2002 and were believed to be funding rebels in Sierra Leone.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> These sanctions were lifted in 2006.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Due in large part to foreign aid and investment inflow following the end of the war, Liberia maintains a large account deficit, which peaked at nearly 60% in 2008.<ref name=consultation/> Liberia gained observer status with the World Trade Organization in 2010 and became an official member in 2016.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Liberia has the highest ratio of foreign direct investment to GDP in the world, with US$16 billion (~$Template:Format price in Template:Inflation/year) in investment since 2006.<ref name=agi/> Following Sirleaf's inauguration in 2006, Liberia signed several multi-billion-dollar concession agreements in the iron ore and palm oil industries with numerous multinational corporations, including ArcelorMittal, BHP and Sime Darby.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Palm oil companies like Sime Darby (Malaysia) and Golden Veroleum (USA) have been accused of destroying livelihoods and displacing local communities, enabled by government concessions.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Since 1926 Firestone has operated the world's largest rubber plantation in Harbel, Margibi County. As of 2015, it had more than 8,000 mostly Liberian employees, making it the country's largest private employer.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In September 2024 the International Monetary Fund (IMF) announced that its executive board approved a financial arrangement of approximately $210 million for Liberia. The approval includes an immediate disbursement of around $8 million. This arrangement is aimed at supporting Liberia's economic recovery and addressing fiscal challenges.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Shipping flag of convenience
[edit]Due to its status as a flag of convenience, Liberia has the second-largest maritime registry in the world behind Panama. It has 3,500 vessels registered under its flag, accounting for 11% of ships worldwide.<ref name="Schoenurl"/><ref name="About the Liberian Registry"/>
Major industries
[edit]Agriculture
[edit]Template:ExcerptSustenance farming is popular in many areas of Liberia. Communities primarily grow upland rice, cassava, and vegetables, though cane sugar distillation and coal mining provide job opportunity diversification.<ref name=":6" />
Traditional farming systems, such as intercropping and agroforestry, could encourage biodiversity and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. These farming practices are largely used by local or native Liberian farmers. Use of other culturally significant crops such as rice or bitterball have been shown to increase nitrogen fixation in soil, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions. These changes have been shown to increase the resilience of food production and alleviate reduction in access to wild foods associated with the loss of forests. However, continued acquisition of land by palm oil and rubber plantations reduces household access to land, food, and water.<ref name=":7" />
Palm oil production is also a large part of Liberian agriculture and is largely controlled by the Malaysian palm oil company, Sime Darby. In 2009, Liberia granted one of its largest concessions to Sime Darby, despite local and international concern over the environmental impacts this could cause. Liberia, which has one of the highest rates of unemployment in the world, was promised employment of roughly 30,000 by Sime Darby for palm oil production. Palm oil production is expected to increase as global demand for palm oil for food and biofuel increases. Rubber production in Liberia is mostly done through plantations and industrial agriculture. These industries can cause deforestation and have been shown to decrease the amount of land owned by locals according to a study done by the Cornell Land Project. They can also decrease local incomes by taking away the ability of locals to hunt for and trade bushmeat or grow crops to sell.<ref name=":6" />
Mining
[edit]Between 1960 and 1980, iron ore mining was the mainstay of the Liberian economy, contributing to more than 60 percent of export earnings. This came after former United States president Harry S. Truman encouraged foreign investment, leading some foreign companies to invest in Liberia’s mining sector. During this time, much of the mining done in Liberia was carried out by alluvial mining of small-scale operations, with estimates of over 100,000 artisanal miners in Liberia. However, with the onset of Liberia’s first civil war, much of the country’s productive infrastructure was destroyed and mining was brought to a virtual halt. The commencement of Liberia’s second civil war aggravated this trend.<ref name=":8">Template:Cite journal</ref>
After the end of Liberia’s second civil war, there was a sharp post-conflict increase in mining activities, rapid settlement expansion and increasing forest loss. This increased mining activity and associated forest loss threatens biodiversity, increases pressure on available agricultural land, especially land meant for sustenance agriculture, and increases potential exposure of the Liberian population to pollution from mining activities.<ref name=":8" /> Many of these iron and gold ore corporations which are increasingly dominating the Liberian economy are geared to satisfy the needs of the metropolitan economies and not the needs of the Liberian economy. This has led to the formation of economic islands which fail to have any “developing effect” on the economy as a whole. [237] Despite the stronger economic linkages artisanal mines have to local communities, investment in industrial mining by foreign companies has increased in post-conflict Liberia due to larger taxes and royalty payments received from industrial mines.<ref name=":9">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Liberian mining has also been shown to have negative effects on the Liberian environment. Post conflict mining has contributed to an increase in forest loss and air pollution. Though Liberia does possess environmental management tools such as the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), use of these tools and environmentally protective policy is still lacking. Harnessing of best practices in regards to agriculture and mining and valorizing local knowledge has been shown to be inadequate, meaning pressure on the environment is still heavy. Liberia’s mining industry also impacts food and water availability for many Liberian peoples, impacting household nutrition and income levels.<ref name=":8" />
Mining labor in Liberia has faced criticism from civil society groups and, notably, Joshua Obediah Zaza Arku, Inspector-General of Liberia’s Mines and Energy Ministry'. Aside from long hours and low wages, resistance movements and unions have been squashed by corporate and government entities, leading to outrage of the Liberian working class. On November 23, 1976, workers at the depleted iron ore mines at Bomi Hills went on strike demanding that, prior to the mine’s closing, they should be paid two months wage for each year they worked with the company. News reporters on the scene described random arrests and undue violence towards workers on strike. Many other instances of violence against laborers and the working class in Liberia have been recorded.[237] Liberia has seen many protests in its mining sector, mostly over poor working conditions and a perceived apathy towards the Liberian peoples. Some of the protests, such as the March 1, 2024 protest at Kinjor, have resulted in injuries and even deaths of Liberian miners. Protests and resistance continue today over poor working and living conditions.<ref name=":9" />
Gold, diamonds, and iron ore form the core minerals of the mining sector with a new Mineral Development Policy and Mining Code being put in place to attract foreign investments.<ref name=":10" /> In 2013, the mineral sector accounted for 11% of GDP in the country and the World Bank projected a further increase in the sector by 2017.<ref name=":11" />
TelecommunicationsTemplate:Main There are six major newspapers in Liberia, and 65% of the population has a mobile phone service. Much of Liberia's communications infrastructure was destroyed or plundered during the two civil wars (1989–1996 and 1999–2003).<ref name=reform>Template:Cite web</ref> With low rates of adult literacy and high poverty rates, television and newspaper use is limited, leaving radio as the predominant means of communicating with the public.<ref>"Introduction to Communication and Development in Liberia" Template:Webarchive, AudienceScapes. Retrieved February 8, 2014.</ref>
Transportation
[edit]
Energy
[edit]Template:Further Public electricity services are provided solely by the state-owned Liberia Electricity Corporation, which operates a small grid almost exclusively in the Greater Monrovia District.<ref name="Options">Template:Cite web</ref> The vast majority of electric energy services is provided by small, privately owned generators. At $0.54 per kWh, the cost of electricity in Liberia is among the highest in the world. Total capacity in 2013 was 20 MW, a sharp decline from a peak of 191 MW in 1989 before the wars.<ref name="Options"/>
The repair and expansion of the Mount Coffee Hydropower Project, with a maximum capacity of 80 MW, was completed in 2018.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Construction of three new heavy fuel oil power plants is expected to boost electrical capacity by 38 MW.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2013, Liberia began importing power from neighboring Ivory Coast and Guinea through the West African Power Pool.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Liberia has begun exploration for offshore oil; unproven oil reserves may be in excess of one billion barrels.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The government divided its offshore waters into 17 blocks and began auctioning off exploration licenses for the blocks in 2004, with further auctions in 2007 and 2009.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=bidding>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":10">Template:Cite web</ref> An additional 13 ultra-deep offshore blocks were demarcated in 2011 and planned for auction.<ref name=":11">Template:Cite web</ref> Among the companies to have won licenses are Repsol YPF, Chevron Corporation, and Woodside Petroleum.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Demographics
[edit]Template:Main Template:See also As of the 2017 national census, Liberia was home to 4,694,608 people.<ref name="census2017final">Template:Cite web</ref> Of those, 1,118,241 lived in Montserrado County, the most populous county in the country and location of the capital Monrovia. The Greater Monrovia District has 970,824 residents.<ref name="census2008final">Template:Cite web</ref> Nimba County is the next most populous county, with 462,026 residents.<ref name="census2008final"/> As revealed in the 2008 census, Monrovia is more than four times more populous than all the county capitals combined.<ref name="census2008"/>
Prior to the 2008 census, the last census had been taken in 1984 and listed the country's population as 2,101,628.<ref name="census2008final"/> The population of Liberia was 1,016,443 in 1962 and increased to 1,503,368 in 1974.<ref name="census2008"/> Template:As of, Liberia had the highest population growth rate in the world (4.50% per annum).<ref>United Nations World Population Prospects: 2006 revision Template:Webarchive – Table A.8</ref> In 2010 some 43.5% of Liberians were below the age of 15.<ref name="WPP 2010">Template:Cite web</ref>
Template:Largest cities of Liberia
Ethnic groups
[edit]Template:Bar box The population includes 16 indigenous ethnic groups and various foreign minorities. Indigenous peoples comprise about 95 percent of the population. The 16 officially recognized ethnic groups include the Kpelle, Bassa, Mano, Gio or Dan, Kru, Grebo, Krahn, Vai, Gola, Mandingo or Mandinka, Mende, Kissi, Gbandi, Loma, Dei or Dewoin, and Belleh.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Americo-Liberians, or Congo people,Template:Efn are a historical community in Liberia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The Kpelle comprise more than 20% of the population and are the largest ethnic group in Liberia, residing mostly in Bong County and adjacent areas in central Liberia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Americo-Liberians, who are descendants of African American and West Indian, mostly Barbadian (Bajan) settlers, make up 2.5%. Congo people, descendants of repatriated Congo and Afro-Caribbean slaves who arrived in 1825, make up an estimated 2.5%.<ref name="CIA"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Better source needed These latter two groups established political control in the 19th century which they kept well into the 20th century.
The Liberian constitution exercises jus sanguinis, which means it usually restricts its citizenship to "Negroes or persons of Negro descent."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> That being said, numerous immigrants have come as merchants and become a major part of the business community, including Lebanese, Indians, and other West African nationals. There is a high prevalence of interracial marriage between ethnic Liberians and the Lebanese, resulting in a significant mixed-race population especially in and around Monrovia. A small minority of Liberians who are White Africans of European descent reside in the country.Template:Better source needed<ref name="CIA"/>
Languages
[edit]Template:Further English is the official language and serves as the lingua franca of Liberia.<ref name=pulitzer>Template:Cite web</ref> As of 2022, 27 indigenous languages are spoken in Liberia, but each is a first language for only a small percentage of the population.<ref name=e25>Liberia in Template:E25</ref> Liberians also speak a variety of creolized dialects collectively known as Liberian English.<ref name=pulitzer/>
Religion
[edit]Template:Main Template:Bar box According to the 2008 National Census, 85.6% of the population practiced Christianity, while Muslims represented a minority of 12.2%.<ref name="Census 2008">Template:Cite web</ref> A multitude of diverse Protestant confessions such as Lutheran, Baptist, Episcopal, Presbyterian, Pentecostal, United Methodist, African Methodist Episcopal (AME) and African Methodist Episcopal Zion (AME Zion) denominations form the bulk of the Christian population, followed by adherents of the Catholic Church and other non-Protestant Christians. Most of these Christian denominations were brought by African-American settlers moving from the United States into Liberia via the American Colonization Society, while some are indigenous—especially Pentecostal and evangelical Protestant ones. Protestantism was originally associated with Black American settlers and their Americo-Liberian descendants, while native peoples initially held to their own animist forms of African traditional religion before largely adopting Christianity. While Christian, many Liberians also participate in traditional, gender-based indigenous religious secret societies, such as Poro for men and Sande for women. The all-female Sande society practices female circumcision.<ref name=irfr>Template:Cite web</ref>
Muslims comprised 12.2% of the population in 2008, largely represented by the Mandingo and Vai ethnic groups. Liberian Muslims are divided between Sunnis, Shias, Ahmadiyyas, Sufis, and non-denominational Muslims.<ref>Pew Forum on Religious & Public life. August 9, 2012. Retrieved October 29, 2013</ref>
In 2008, 0.5% identified adherence to traditional indigenous religions, while 1.5% claimed no religion. A small number of people were Baháʼí, Hindu, Sikh, or Buddhist.
The Liberian constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right.<ref name=irfr/> While separation of church and state is mandated by the Constitution, Liberia is considered a Christian state in practice.<ref name="freedom">Template:Cite web</ref> Public schools offer biblical studies, though parents may opt their children out. Commerce is prohibited by law on Sunday and major Christian holidays. The government does not require businesses or schools to excuse Muslims for Friday prayers.<ref name=irfr/> Template:Clear
Education
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In 2010, the literacy rate of Liberia was estimated at 60.8% (64.8% for males and 56.8% for females).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In some areas primary and secondary education is free and compulsory from the ages of 6 to 16, though enforcement of attendance is lax.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In other areas children are required to pay a tuition fee to attend school. On average, children attain 10 years of education (11 for boys and 8 for girls).<ref name=CIA/> The country's education sector is hampered by inadequate schools and supplies, as well as a lack of qualified teachers.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Higher education is provided by a number of public and private universities. The University of Liberia is the country's largest and oldest university. Located in Monrovia, the university opened in 1862. Today it has six colleges, including a medical school and the nation's only law school, Louis Arthur Grimes School of Law.<ref>Jallah, David A. B. "Notes, Presented by Professor and Dean of the Louis Arthur Grimes School of Law, University of Liberia, David A. B. Jallah to the International Association of Law Schools Conference Learning From Each Other: Enriching the Law School Curriculum in an Interrelated World Held at Soochow University Kenneth Wang School of Law, Suzhou, China, October 17–19, 2007." Template:Webarchive International Association of Law Schools. Retrieved on September 1, 2008.</ref>
In 2009, Tubman University in Harper, Maryland County was established as the second public university in Liberia.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Since 2006, the government has also opened community colleges in Buchanan, Sanniquellie, and Voinjama.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Due to student protests late in October 2018, newly elected president George Weah abolished tuition fees for undergraduate students in public universities in Liberia.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Health
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Hospitals in Liberia include the John F. Kennedy Medical Center in Monrovia and several others. Life expectancy in Liberia is estimated to be 64.4 years in 2020.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> With a fertility rate of 5.9 births per woman, the maternal mortality rate stood at 990 per 100,000 births in 2010, and 1,072 per 100,000 births in 2017.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A number of highly communicable diseases are widespread, including tuberculosis, diarrheal diseases and malaria. In 2007, the HIV infection rates stood at 2% of the population aged 15–49<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> whereas the incidence of tuberculosis was 420 per 100,000 people in 2008.<ref name="profile">Template:Cite web</ref> Approximately 58.2%<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> – 66%<ref name=UNICEF2013p27>UNICEF 2013 Template:Webarchive, p. 27.</ref> of women are estimated to have undergone female genital mutilation.
Liberia imports 90% of its rice, a staple food, and is extremely vulnerable to food shortages.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2007, 20.4% of children under the age of five were malnourished.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Liberia has a high level of hunger and food insecurity<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Approximately 95% of the country's healthcare facilities had been destroyed by the time civil war ended in 2003.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2009, government expenditure on health care per capita was US$22, (~$Template:Format price in Template:Inflation/year) <ref>Template:Cite web</ref> accounting for 10.6% of total GDP.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2008, Liberia had only one doctor and 27 nurses per 100,000 people.<ref name="profile"/>
In 2014, an outbreak of Ebola virus in Guinea spread to Liberia.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Template:As of, there were 2,812 confirmed deaths from the ongoing outbreak.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Culture
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The religious practices, social customs, and cultural standards of the Americo-Liberians had their roots in the antebellum American South. The settlers wore top hat and tails and modeled their homes on those of Southern slaveowners.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Most Americo-Liberian men were members of the Masonic Order of Liberia, which became heavily involved in the nation's politics.Template:Citation needed
Liberia has a rich history in textile arts and quilting, as the settlers brought with them their sewing and quilting skills. Liberia hosted National Fairs in 1857 and 1858 in which prizes were awarded for various needle arts. One of the most well-known Liberian quilters was Martha Ann Ricks,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> who presented a quilt featuring the famed Liberian coffee tree to Queen Victoria in 1892. When President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf moved into the Executive Mansion, she reportedly had a Liberian-made quilt installed in her presidential office.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
A rich literary tradition has existed in Liberia for over a century. Edward Wilmot Blyden, Bai T. Moore, Roland T. Dempster and Wilton G. S. Sankawulo are among Liberia's more prominent authors.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Moore's novella Murder in the Cassava Patch is considered Liberia's most celebrated novel.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Media
[edit]Polygamy
[edit]Template:Further One-third of married Liberian women between the ages of 15–49 are in polygamous marriages.<ref name="Atlasof">OECD Atlas of Gender and Development: How Social Norms Affect Gender Equality in non-OECD Countries, OECD Publishing, 2010. p. 236.</ref> Customary law allows men to have up to four wives.<ref>Olukoju, Ayodeji. "Gender Roles, Marriage and Family", Culture and Customs of Liberia. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2006, p. 97.</ref>
Cuisine
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Liberian cuisine heavily incorporates rice, the country's staple food. Other ingredients include cassava, fish, bananas, citrus fruit, plantains, coconut, okra and sweet potatoes.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Heavy stews spiced with habanero and scotch bonnet chilies are popular and eaten with fufu.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Liberia also has a tradition of baking imported from the United States that is unique in West Africa.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Sport
[edit]The most popular sport in Liberia is association football, with former president George Weah being the nation's most famous athlete. He is so far the only African to be named FIFA World Player of the Year.<ref name="FIFA">"Iconic Weah a true great". FIFA.com. Retrieved November 17, 2013</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Liberia national football team has reached the Africa Cup of Nations finals twice, in 1996 and 2002.
The second most popular sport in Liberia is basketball. The Liberian national basketball team has reached the AfroBasket twice, in 1983 and 2007.
In Liberia, the Samuel Kanyon Doe Sports Complex serves as a multi-purpose stadium. It hosts FIFA World Cup qualifying matches in addition to international concerts and national political events.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Measurement system
[edit]Liberia has not yet completely adopted the International System of Units (abbreviated as the SI, also called the metric system). The Liberian government has begun transitioning away from use of United States customary units to the metric system.<ref name=ut> Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Better source needed This change has been gradual, with government reports concurrently using United States Customary and metric units.<ref> Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2018, the Liberian Commerce and Industry Minister announced that the Liberian government is committed to adopting the metric system.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
See also
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[edit]References
[edit]Further reading
[edit]- Cooper, Helene, House at Sugar Beach: In Search of a Lost African Childhood (Simon & Schuster, 2008, Template:ISBN)
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- Lang, Victoria, To Liberia: Destiny's Timing (Publish America, Baltimore, 2004, Template:ISBN). Novel of the journey of a young Black couple fleeing America to settle in the African motherland of Liberia.
- Maksik, Alexander, A Marker to Measure Drift (John Murray 2013; Paperback 2014; Template:ISBN). A novel about a young woman's experience of and escape from the Liberian civil war.
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- Mwakikagile, Godfrey, Military Coups in West Africa Since The Sixties, Chapter Eight: Liberia: 'The Love of Liberty Brought Us Here,' pp. 85–110, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Huntington, New York, 2001; Godfrey Mwakikagile, The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation, Chapter One: The Collapse of A Modern African State: Death and Rebirth of Liberia, pp. 1–18, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2001.
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- Sankawulo, Wilton, Great Tales of Liberia. Dr. Sankawulo is the compiler of these tales from Liberia and about Liberian culture. Editura Universității "Lucian Blaga", Sibiu, Romania, 2004. Template:ISBN.
- Sankawulo, Wilton, Sundown at Dawn: A Liberian Odyssey. Recommended by the Cultural Resource Center, Center for Applied Linguistics for its content concerning Liberian culture. Template:ISBN
- Shaw, Elma, Redemption Road: The Quest for Peace and Justice in Liberia (a novel), with a foreword by President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf (Cotton Tree Press, 2008, Template:ISBN)
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External links
[edit]- Template:Official website, President official government portal
- Foreign Affairs of Liberia
- Liberia profile from ECOWAS
- Template:Wikiatlas
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- News headline links from Al Jazeera.
- Liberia, Democracy Now!
- Liberia profile from the BBC News.
- Liberia Business Facts from Bizpages
Template:Liberia topics Template:Countries of Africa Template:Navboxes Template:Navboxes
- Pages with broken file links
- Liberia
- Economic Community of West African States
- Countries and territories where English is an official language
- Least developed countries
- Member states of the African Union
- Republics
- States and territories established in 1847
- Member states of the United Nations
- West African countries
- 1847 establishments in Liberia
- Countries in Africa
- American colonization movement