Anusvara
Template:Short description Template:Infobox diacritic Template:Distinguish Anusvara (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell; Template:Langx, Template:IAST3, Template:IPA), also known as Bindu (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell; Template:Langx Template:Ipa), is a symbol used in many Indic scripts to mark a type of nasal sound, typically transliterated Template:Grapheme or Template:Grapheme in standards like ISO 15919 and IAST. Depending on its location in a word and the language for which it is used, its exact pronunciation can vary. In the context of ancient Sanskrit, anusvara is the name of the particular nasal sound itself, regardless of written representation.
Sanskrit
[edit]In Vedic Sanskrit, the anusvāra (Template:Lit)Template:Sfn was an allophonic (derived) nasal sound.
The exact nature of the sound has been subject to debate. The material in the various ancient phonetic treatises points towards different phonetic interpretations, and these discrepancies have historically been attributed to either differences in the description of the same pronunciation<ref>Whitney, cited in Template:Harvnb</ref> or to dialectal or diachronic variation.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In a 2013 reappraisal of the evidence, Cardona concludes that these reflect real dialectal differences.Template:Sfn
The environments in which the anusvara could arise, however, were well defined. In the earliest Vedic Sanskrit, it was an allophone of /m/ at a morpheme boundary, or of /n/ within morphemes, when it was preceded by a vowel and followed by a fricative (Template:IAST).Template:Sfn In later Sanskrit its use expanded to other contexts, first before /r/ under certain conditions, then, in Classical Sanskrit, before Template:IAST and Template:IAST.Template:Sfn
Later still, Pāṇini gave anusvara as an alternative pronunciation as word-final sandhi, and later treatises also prescribed it at morpheme junctions and within morphemes.Template:Sfn In the later written language, the diacritic used to represent anusvara was optionally used to indicate a nasal stop having the same place of articulation as a following plosive, which was written in some evolved scripts (e.g. in Bengali-Assamese) as an additional sandhi letter (no longer as a diacritic) for Vedic transcriptions of Sanskrit, to distinguish it with the anusvara diacritic that was used to transcribe other phonemes.
Devanagari script
[edit]In the Devanagari script, anusvāra is represented with a dot (bindu) above the letter (e.g. मं). In the International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST), the corresponding symbol is ṃ (m with an underdot). Some transcriptions render notation of phonetic variants used in some Vedic shakhas with variant transcription (ṁ).
In writing Sanskrit, the anusvara is often used as an alternative representation of the nasal stop with the same place of articulation as the following plosive. For example, Template:IPA 'limb (of the body)' may be written with either a conjunct, अङ्ग aṅga, or with an anusvara, अंग aṃga. A variant of the anusvara, the anunāsika or 'chandrabindu', was used more explicitly for nasalized vowels, as in अँश aṃśa for Template:IPA 'portion'.<ref name="DB">William Bright, "The Devanagari Script", in Daniels & Bright, The World's Writing Systems, OUP, 1996.</ref>
Hindi
[edit]In Standard Hindi, the anusvāra is traditionally defined as representing a nasal consonant homorganic to a following plosive, in contrast to the Template:Lang (Template:Lang), which indicates vowel nasalization. In practice, however, the two are often used interchangeably.
The precise phonetic value of the phoneme, whether it is represented by Template:Lang or Template:Lang, is dependent on the phonological environment.<ref>The following rules are from Template:Harvtxt</ref>
Word-finally, it is realized as nasalization of the preceding vowel: Template:Lang Template:IPA, "a well". It results in vowel nasalization also medially between a short vowel and a non-obstruent (Template:Lang Template:IPA "a youth", Template:Lang Template:IPA "a long-handled axe") and, in native words, between a long vowel and a voiceless plosive (Template:Lang Template:IPA "tooth", Template:Lang Template:IPA "a snake", Template:Lang Template:IPA "tail").
It is pronounced as a homorganic nasal, with the preceding vowel becoming nasalized allophonically, in the following cases: between a long vowel and a voiced plosive (Template:Lang Template:IPA "copper", Template:Lang Template:IPA "silver"), between a long vowel and a voiceless plosive in loanwords (Template:Lang Template:IPA "repressed", Template:Lang Template:IPA "a bank", Template:Lang Template:IPA "cashier"), and between a short vowel and an obstruent (Template:Lang Template:IPA "to support", Template:Lang Template:IPA "a chest").
The last rule has two sets of exceptions in which the Template:Lang results only in the nasalization of the preceding short vowel. Words from the first set are morphologically derived from words with a long nasalized vowel (Template:Lang Template:IPA, "to be divided" from Template:Lang Template:IPA, "to divide"; Template:Lang Template:IPA, "irrigation" from Template:Lang Template:IPA, "to irrigate"). In such cases, the vowel is sometimes denasalized (Template:IPA, Template:IPA instead of Template:IPA, Template:IPA). The second set is composed of a few words like (Template:Lang Template:IPA, "to arrive" and Template:Lang Template:IPA, "to laugh").<ref group="note">Template:Harvtxt lists five more such words: Template:Lang "to sink", Template:Lang "to be stuck", Template:Lang "a necklace", Template:Lang "a sickle" and Template:Lang "laughter".</ref>
Marathi
[edit]In Marathi, the anusvāra is pronounced as a nasal that is homorganic to the following consonant (with the same place of articulation). For example, it is pronounced as the dental nasal न् before dental consonants, as the bilabial nasal म् before bilabial consonants, etcTemplate:Citation needed . Unlike in other Indic languages, the same dot designating the anusvāra in Marathi is also used to mark a retension of the inherent vowel (it is inconsistently placed over a consonant after which the short central vowel is to be pronounced and not elided).
Nepali
[edit]In Nepali, the candrabindu indicates vowel nasalization. Therefore, there is a great deal of variation regarding which occurs in any given position. Many words containing anusvara thus have alternative spellings with a chandrabindu instead of the anusvāra and vice versa. Anusvara is used when there is too little space for the chandrabindu. The anusvāra can represent a nasal vowel, a homoorganic nasal, or both.
Other Indic script languages
[edit]Anusvara is used in other languages using Indic scripts as well, usually to represent suprasegmental phones (such as phonation type or nasalization) or other nasal sounds.
Bengali
[edit]
In the Bengali script, the anusvara diacritic (Template:Langx) is written as a circle above a slanted line (ং), and represents /অঙ্/. It is used in the name of the Bengali language বাংলা Template:IPA and has merged in pronunciation with the letter ঙ unga in Bengali.
Although the anusvara is a consonant in Bengali phonology, it is treated in the written system as a diacritic in that it is always directly adjacent to the preceding consonant, even when consonants are spaced apart in titles or banners: বাং-লা-দে-শ baṅ-la-de-ś, not বা-ং-লা-দে-শ ba-ṅ-la-de-ś for বাংলাদেশ Bangladesh. It is never pronounced with the inherent vowel 'ô', and it cannot take a vowel sign (instead, the consonant ঙ uṅô is used before vowels).
Burmese
[edit]In the Burmese script, the anusvara (Template:Lang auk myit (့) Template:IPA) is represented as a dot under a nasalised final to indicate a creaky tone (with a shortened vowel).
Burmese also uses a dot above a letter to indicate the Template:IPA nasalized ending (called "Myanmar Sign Anusvara" in Unicode), called Template:Lang thay thay tin (Template:IPA) (ံ)
Sinhala
[edit]In the Sinhala script, the anusvara is not a nonspacing combining mark but a spacing combining mark. It has a circular shape and follows its base letter ( ං).<ref>See an example in Template:Cite web</ref> It is called Template:Transliteration in Sinhala, which means "dot". The anusvara represents Template:IPAslink at the end of a syllable. It is used in the name of the Sinhala language සිංහල Template:IPA. It has merged in pronunciation with the letter ඞ ṅa in Sinhala.
Telugu
[edit]The Telugu script has full-zero (sunna) ం , half-zero (arasunna) and visarga to convey various shades of nasal sounds. Anusvara is represented as a circle shape after a letter:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> క - ka and కం - kam.
Thai
[edit]The equivalent of the anusvara in the Thai alphabet is the nikkhahit (◌ํ). Used in rendering Sanskrit and Pali texts, it is written as an open circle above the consonant (for example Template:Lang). Its pronunciation depends on the following sound: if it is a consonant, the nikkhahit is pronounced as a homorganic nasal, and if it is at the end of a word, it is pronounced as a voiced velar nasalTemplate:IPA.Template:Citation needed
Anunasika
[edit]Anunasika (Template:IAST) is a form of vowel nasalization, often represented by an anusvara. It is a form of open-mouthed nasalization, akin to the nasalization of vowels followed by "n" or "m" in Parisian French. When "n" or "m" follows a vowel, the "n" or "m" becomes silent and causes the preceding vowel to become nasal (it is pronounced with the soft palate extended downward to allow part or all of the air to leave through the nostrils). Anunasika is sometimes called a subdot because of its IAST representation.
In Devanagari and related scripts, the anunasika is represented by the chandrabindu diacritic (example: माँ).
In Burmese, the anunasika, called Template:Lang (Template:IPA) and represented as Template:Angbr, creates the Template:IPA nasalized ending when it is attached as a dot above a letter. The anunasika represents the -m final in Pali.
Unicode
[edit]Unicode encodes anusvara and anusvara-like characters for a variety of scripts:
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