John de Gray

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John de Gray or de Grey (died 18 October 1214) was an English prelate who served as Bishop of Norwich, and was elected but unconfirmed Archbishop of Canterbury. He was employed in the service of Prince John even before John became king, for which he was rewarded with a number of ecclesiastical offices, culminating in his pro forma election to Norwich in 1200. De Gray continued in royal service after his elevation to the episcopate, lending the King money and undertaking diplomatic missions on his behalf. In 1205 King John attempted to further reward de Gray with a translation to the archbishopric of Canterbury, but a disputed election process led to de Gray's selection being quashed by Pope Innocent III in 1206.

Innocent consecrated Stephen Langton as archbishop against John's wishes, triggering a long dispute between the papacy and the King. The pope imposed various sanctions on England and John; at one point de Gray was one of only two bishops still legitimately holding office in England. In 1209 he became governor of Ireland for John, and spent until 1213 attempting to impose a royal government on the Anglo-Norman barons and the native Irish in that country. Recalled to England to help defend against a threatened invasion by the French, de Gray then travelled to Rome to secure a papal pardon after the final settlement of John and Innocent's dispute over the bishop's abortive elevation to Canterbury. After securing his pardon de Gray was appointed Bishop of Durham, but he died on his way back to England.

De Gray built a palace in his diocese and several castles in Ireland. Although he was reviled by one contemporary writer as an "evil counsellor" to the King,<ref name=QDNB/> modern historians have been more forgiving; one praised his intelligence and others stated that de Gray was one of the few men King John trusted throughout his life. De Gray's nephew, Walter de Gray, secured the office of Lord Chancellor with his uncle's help in 1205.

Early life

Some describe de Gray as a native of Norfolk; he was likely descended from the Norman knight Anchetil de Greye.<ref name=DNB>Haines "Gray, John de" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</ref> De Gray was the uncle of Walter de Gray, later Archbishop of York.<ref name=BHOCleve/> The elder de Gray was instrumental in securing the selection of his nephew as Lord Chancellor,<ref name=DNB/> as he was a surety for Walter's payment of a fine of 5000 marks to acquire the position.<ref name=Harding236>Harding England in the Thirteenth Century p. 236</ref>Template:Efn

By 1196, de Gray was in the service of King Richard I's brother John, and was keeper of John's seal by 1198.<ref name=BHOCleve>Greenway Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066–1300: Volume 6: York: Archdeacons of Cleveland</ref> John ascended the throne of England in 1199, with de Gray becoming Archdeacon of Cleveland in March 1200,<ref name=BHOCleve/> and Archdeacon of Gloucester before April that year.<ref name=BHOGlou>Greenway Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066–1300: Volume 2: Monastic Cathedrals (Northern and Southern Provinces): Worcester: Archdeacons of Gloucester</ref> He also served as John's secretary,<ref name=Warren160>Warren King John pp. 160–162</ref> and frequently as a deputy for the Lord Chancellor, Hubert Walter.<ref name=Young149>Young Hubert Walter p. 149</ref> Shortly after John became king, de Gray began travelling between England and the continent on royal business, and for the first two years of John's reign was active in the royal chancery, sealing royal charters.<ref name=DNB/>

De Gray was elected Bishop of Norwich on about 7 September 1200,<ref name=Handbook261/> although the election was purely pro forma,<ref name=Warren160/> as acknowledged by a contemporary writer Roger of Howden, who stated that the new bishop "succeeded to the bishopric of Norwich by the gift of King John".<ref name=QWarren160>Quoted in Warren King John p. 160</ref> De Gray was consecrated on 24 September.<ref name=Handbook261>Fryde, et al. Handbook of British Chronology p. 261</ref> His consecration took place together with that of the new Bishop of Hereford Giles de Braose at Westminster, at the conclusion of a provincial church council held by Archbishop Walter, which de Gray had been attending.<ref name=Walter65>Cheney Hubert Walter p. 65</ref> Walter performed the ceremony in a chapel of Westminster Abbey.<ref name=DNB/>

Bishop of Norwich

While bishop, de Gray often lent the king money, and on one occasion held the royal regalia as security for the repayment of a loan; he also served as a royal justice. In 1203 de Gray accompanied Archbishop Hubert Walter and several papal legates on an unsuccessful diplomatic mission to King Philip II of France.<ref name=DNB/> Philip had demanded that John's niece Eleanor of Brittany or his nephew Arthur of Brittany be surrendered to him together with all of John's lands on the continent, none of which John was prepared to concede. Philip invaded Normandy after the bishops returned to England.<ref name=Loss260>Powicke Loss of Normandy p. 260</ref>

In 1203 some of de Gray's knights were part of the garrison at the castle of Vaudreuil in Normandy, serving under the command of Robert FitzWalter. Although they had provisions and John was moving in support of the troops, in the summer of 1203 the garrison surrendered to Philip, shortly after a siege had begun.<ref name=Loss162>Powicke Loss of Normandy p. 162</ref> When John abandoned Normandy in late 1203, effectively relinquishing control of the duchy to Philip, de Gray was one of his companions on the journey to the port of Barfleur, and went on to England with the king.<ref name=Loss169>Powicke Loss of Normandy p. 169 and footnote 251</ref>

Archbishop-elect

John's attempt to impose de Gray's election as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1205 was the beginning of the king's long quarrel with Pope Innocent III. After Hubert Walter's death in July 1205, the selection of a successor was hindered by doubts about what the proper procedure should be, something that commonly happened with elections to Canterbury. John postponed a decision while delegations from the bishops of England and the monks of the cathedral chapter went to Rome to seek guidance from the pope.<ref name=Jones35/> The bishops of the province of Canterbury claimed the right to a say in who was elected, as whoever was chosen would be their superior,<ref name=Harding266>Harding England in the Thirteenth Century p. 266</ref> but according to canon law the monks of the cathedral chapter had the right to elect the new archbishop. The king also had a say in the election,<ref name=Lyon306>Lyon Constitutional and Legal History pp. 306–307</ref> as the archbishop was a major tenant-in-chief and was traditionally one of the principal royal advisers.<ref name=Huscroft195>Huscroft Ruling England pp. 195–196</ref>

While the delegations from the various parties were in Rome, the monks of Canterbury secretly elected one of their own, Reginald, as archbishop, and subsequently sent him to Rome to join the delegation. When John discovered that Reginald had been elected without any royal input he forced the monks to elect de Gray as archbishop.<ref name=Warren160/> Some stories have Reginald's election taking place before the despatch of the first delegation to the papal curia. Another source, Gervase of Canterbury, has the king telling the chapter they could choose their own nominee after six months, while the king secretly sent envoys to Rome to secure de Gray's election.<ref name=Jones35>Jones King John and Magna Carta pp. 35–37</ref> A further story, from Roger of Wendover, states that the monks elected Reginald before Walter was even buried and that only a few members of the cathedral chapter – the younger ones – participated in the election. Wendover wrote in the 1230s and was not a monk of Canterbury, therefore it is unlikely he has recorded a true account.<ref name=Election212>Knowles "Canterbury Election" English Historical Review pp. 212–215</ref>

De Gray was postulated or nominated, to Canterbury on 11 December 1205,<ref name=Warren160/> which presented Innocent with two candidates for the office. In an effort to reach a compromise,<ref name=Lyon240>Lyon Constitutional and Legal History p. 240</ref> the pope quashed both nominations on about 30 March 1206;<ref name=Warren160/><ref name=Handbook232>Fryde, et al. Handbook of British Chronology p. 232</ref> Innocent's reason for invalidating de Gray's candidacy was that any election was invalid if an earlier one was still under appeal to the papacy.<ref name=Evil116>Turner King John p. 116</ref> The monks then elected Stephen Langton, with Innocent's approval.<ref name=Warren160/> John did not accept Langton's candidacy, however, and Innocent's consecration of Langton in 1207 led to an eight-year struggle between John and the pope over the rights of the king to secure the election of his choice as archbishop.<ref name=Lyon240/> John refused to allow Langton to enter England and exiled the Canterbury monks.<ref name=Huscroft195/> Innocent placed an interdict on England in 1208, which John countered by confiscating the income and estates of any clergy who enforced it. Innocent went on to excommunicate John in 1209, in a dispute that led to the exile of many of the English clergy and John's imposition of heavy financial demands on the church in England;<ref name=Lyon240/> by 1209 de Gray and Peter des Roches, the Bishop of Winchester, were the only living English bishops not in exile.<ref name=Lyon306/> But it was not until 1213,<ref name=Lyon240/> when Innocent began to support John's deposition, that the king became concerned and reached a settlement with the papacy.<ref name=Ruling196>Huscroft Ruling England pp. 196–197</ref>

In Ireland

Part of castle battlements with worn stones

Part of the fortifications at Athlone Castle, built on John de Gray's orders

By 1209 de Gray was in Ireland serving as the king's governor,<ref name=Handbook161>Fryde, et al. Handbook of British Chronology p. 161</ref>Template:Efn an office sometimes referred to as justiciar for Ireland.<ref name=Wood219>Wood "Office of Chief Governor" Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy p. 219</ref> One possible reason for his appointment was to save him from being accused of ignoring the interdict on England. As a bishop, it was de Gray's ecclesiastical duty to enforce the interdict, but by going to Ireland, which was not under interdict, he could continue to serve the king without provoking the papacy.<ref name=Warren195>Warren King John pp. 195–196</ref> De Gray's chief policy in Ireland was to extend English rule, to which end he was involved in battles on the River Shannon and in Fermanagh.<ref name=Otway83>Otway-Ruthven History of Medieval Ireland p. 83</ref> He also replaced the Irish coinage with English, and attempted unsuccessfully to make English laws applicable in Ireland.<ref name=Barlow408>Barlow Feudal Kingdom pp. 408–409</ref> De Gray's term of office in Ireland coincided with a time of change in Irish governmental practices.<ref name=Angevin55>Gillingham Angevin Empire p. 55</ref>

During John's persecution of William de Braose in 1209, William Marshal gave de Braose shelter on his Irish lands. De Gray demanded that Marshal surrender de Braose to him as a traitor, but Marshal refused, claiming that since he held some lands from de Braose, it would be an act of treason to surrender his lord to an outside authority.<ref name=Loss295>Powicke Loss of Normandy p. 295</ref> Marshal's refusal does not seem to have embittered de Gray, however, as three years later the bishop was praising him in a letter to John.<ref name=Warren201>Warren King John p. 201</ref>

John led an expedition to Ireland in 1210 in an effort to bring the Anglo-Norman barons under control. He opened talks with the native Irish kings, and some accounts state that his negotiations were so successful that the native Irish submitted to him. In contrast, the historian Seán Duffy has argued that the native Irish nobility were just as resistant to John as the Anglo-Norman barons. After John's return to England he ordered de Gray to build three new castles in Connacht,<ref name=Duffy241/> one of them at Athlone.<ref name=Orpen261>Orpen "Athlone Castle" Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries p. 261</ref> Associated with the castle building were two military invasions of Connacht by the royal government – one from Meath and Leinster and the other from Munster.<ref name=Duffy241>Duffy "John and Ireland" King John pp. 241–242</ref> De Gray left Ireland in 1211 to lead a military campaign against the Welsh,<ref name=DNB/> leaving his deputy Richard de Tuit in charge of the country.<ref name=Wood219/>

De Gray also faced resistance from the northern Irish. In 1212 he led a campaign against Áed Méith, in the promotion of which he constructed castles at Cáel Uisce, Belleek, and Clones,Template:Efn bases for raids against the Ua Néill territory in the north. A naval campaign was also launched but to no avail.<ref name=Duffy241/> De Gray suffered a defeat at the hands of Cormac O'Melaghlin in 1212 at Fircal, Offaly,<ref name=DNB/> and left Ireland the following year.<ref name=Evil108>Turner King John p. 108</ref> He continued to hold the office of governor for a time, but by July 1213 he had been replaced by Henry de Loundres, the Archbishop of Dublin.<ref name=Wood219/> One of de Gray's final acts as justiciar was to take a force of Irish knights to England to help repel a threatened invasion by the French king Philip II.<ref name=DNB/>

Episcopal affairs and later career

As bishop, de Gray settled a long-running dispute between the monks of his cathedral chapter and his predecessors as bishop.<ref name=Harper-Bill294>Harper-Bill "John and the Church" King John p. 294</ref> He also allowed the monks of his cathedral chapter the right to appoint and replace the clergy of the dependent churches of the cathedral.<ref name=Cheney121>Cheney From Becket to Langton p. 121 footnote 7</ref> De Gray received a 1203 missive from Innocent III decrying the marriages of some secular clergy, in contravention of canon law.<ref name=Cheney137>Cheney From Becket to Langton p. 137</ref> In more secular matters, he granted the town of Bishop's Lynn (now King's Lynn) the right to hold a weekly market and two fairs per year. He also built a palace at Gaywood.<ref name=DNB/>

De Gray's ability to raise money made him useful to John. In 1213 de Gray mustered 500 knights during a period when Philip II was threatening to invade England,<ref name=Powell121/> bringing this force over from Ireland along with mounted men-at-arms to support the king in England.<ref name=Warren204>Warren King John p. 204</ref> In May 1213, John and Innocent finally resolved the dispute over Langton's election to Canterbury, and part of the settlement was that John gave Ireland and England to Innocent and received them back from the pope, making John a papal vassal.<ref name=Lyon306/> The settlement was sealed with a treaty, to which de Gray was one of the witnesses.<ref name=Powell121>Powell and Wallis House of Lords p. 121</ref> After John settled with the papacy, de Gray was not included in the general pardon and had to go to Rome to be pardoned.<ref name=Warren212/> While in that city the bishop was named as one of the guarantors of a new financial arrangement between the king and the pope dealing with feudal payments from England, which lowered the lump sum that had to be paid before Innocent would lift the interdict.<ref name=Vincent92>Vincent Peter des Roches p. 92</ref> After Innocent pardoned de Gray, the pope recommended his election as Bishop of Durham in 1213;<ref name=Warren212>Warren King John p. 212</ref><ref name=BHODurham>Greenway Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066–1300: Volume 2: Monastic Cathedrals (Northern and Southern Provinces): Durham: Bishops</ref> but de Gray died during his journey back to England on 18 October 1214, at Saint-Jean-d'Angély in Poitou.<ref name=Handbook261/> He was buried in Norwich Cathedral, but his tomb has not survived.<ref name=DNB/>

As well as encouraging his nephew's career, de Gray took into his household two of Hubert Walter's household clerks: David, and Robert of Ruddeby.<ref name=Young58>Young Hubert Walter p. 58</ref> Another clerk employed by de Gray, Robert de Bingham, was in the bishop's household during the papal interdict on England; he went on to become a tutor in theology at Oxford, and Bishop of Salisbury in 1228.<ref name=Vincent83>Vincent Peter des Roches p. 83 and footnote 203</ref>

De Gray remained close to John for most of the bishop's life,<ref name=Evil46>Turner King John p. 46</ref> and one of the King's chief fundraisers.<ref name=Powell121/> Sidney Painter, a historian and biographer of John, said of de Gray that he was "probably the only man whom John trusted absolutely and without reservation for the whole period of their association".<ref name=QEvil46>Quoted in Turner King John p. 46</ref> The medievalist Ralph Turner called de Gray "one of John's greatest favourites",<ref name=Evil61>Turner King John p. 61</ref> and another of John's biographers, Template:Nowrap, described de Gray as "one of the best brains of the royal administration".<ref name=Warren195/> Matthew Paris, a medieval writer, called him an "evil counsellor",<ref name=QDNB>Quoted in Haines "Gray, John de" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</ref> and blamed many of the difficulties of John's later reign on de Gray's failed election to Canterbury.<ref name=DNB/>