Editing White Sea

{{short description|Southern inlet of the Barents Sea in northwest Russia}}
{{about|the inlet of the Barents Sea}}
{{Expand Russian|topic=geo|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox sea
| name               = White Sea
| image              =
| caption            =
|pushpin_map=Arctic
| image_bathymetry   = White Sea map.png
| caption_bathymetry =
| location           = [[Eastern Europe]]
| coords             = {{Coord|65|30|N|37|30|E|type:waterbody_scale:5000000|display=inline, title}}
| type               = [[Sea]]
| inflow             =
| outflow            =
| catchment          =
| basin_countries    = [[Russia]]
| length             =
| width              =
| area               = {{convert|90000|km2|sqmi|-2|abbr=on}}
| depth              = {{convert|60|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| max-depth          = {{convert|340|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| volume             =
| reference          = <ref name=bse>[http://bse.sci-lib.com/article107048.html White Sea], [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]] (in Russian)</ref><ref name=brit>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/642594/White-Sea White Sea], Encyclopædia Britannica on-line</ref>
}}

The '''White Sea''' ({{langx|ru|Белое море|Beloye more}}; [[Karelian language|Karelian]] and {{langx|fi|Vienanmeri|lit=Dvina Sea}}; {{langx|yrk|Сэрако ямʼ|Serako yam}}) is a southern [[inlet]] of the [[Barents Sea]] located on the northwest coast of [[Russia]]. It is surrounded by [[Karelia]] to the west, the [[Kola Peninsula]] to the north, and the [[Kanin Peninsula]] to the northeast. The whole of the White Sea is under Russian sovereignty and considered to be part of the [[internal waters]] of Russia.<ref name=rev>A. D. Dobrovolskyi and B. S. Zalogin [http://tapemark.narod.ru/more/10.html "Seas of USSR. White Sea"], Moscow University (1982) (in Russian)</ref> Administratively, it is divided between the [[Arkhangelsk Oblast|Arkhangelsk]] and [[Murmansk Oblast|Murmansk]] oblasts and the [[Republic of Karelia]].

The [[Port of Arkhangelsk|major port]] of [[Arkhangelsk]] is located on the White Sea. For much of Russia's history this was Russia's main centre of international maritime trade, conducted by the [[Pomors]] ("seaside settlers") from [[Kholmogory, Arkhangelsk Oblast|Kholmogory]]. In the modern era it became an important [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] naval and submarine base. The [[White Sea–Baltic Canal]] connects the White Sea with the [[Baltic Sea]].

The White Sea is one of the four seas named (not only in English) after common [[colour term]]s—the others being the [[Black Sea|Black]], [[Red Sea|Red]] and [[Yellow Sea|Yellow]] seas.

==Geography==
{{see also|White Sea Rift System}}

===Extent===
The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] defines the northern limit of the White Sea as "A line joining [[Cape Svyatoy Nos, Murmansk Oblast|Svyatoy Nos]] ([[Murmansk Oblast|Murmansk]] Coast, 39°47'E) and [[Cape Kanin]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf|title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition|year=1953|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|access-date=28 December 2020}}</ref>

===Topography===
[[File:Severodvinsk Yagry Island Beach.jpg|thumb|Summer day on a beach near [[Severodvinsk]], on the southeastern shore of the sea]]
[[File:Кандалакшский залив.jpg|thumb|[[Kandalaksha Gulf]]]]
[[File:Kiy-island Russia.jpg|thumb|Shore of Onega Bay on [[Kiy Island]]]]
There are four main bays or gulfs on the White Sea. These bays connect with the funnel-shaped opening to the Barents Sea via a [[White Sea Throat|narrow strait]] called "[[White Sea Throat|Gorlo]]" ({{langx|ru|Горло}}, meaning "throat"). [[Kandalaksha Gulf]] lies in the western part of the White Sea; it is the deepest part of the sea, reaching 340 metres (1,115 feet). On the south, [[Onega Bay]] receives the [[Onega River]]. To the southeast, the [[Dvina Bay]] receives the [[Northern Dvina]] at the major port of [[Arkhangelsk]]. On the east side of the 'gorlo', opposite to the [[Kola Peninsula]], is [[Mezen Bay]]. It receives the [[Mezen River]] and the [[Kuloy River (White Sea)|Kuloy River]]. Other major rivers flowing into the sea are the [[Vyg River|Vyg]], [[Niva River|Niva]], [[Umba River (Russia)|Umba]], [[Varzuga River|Varzuga]] and [[Ponoy River|Ponoy]].<ref name=bse/><ref name=brit/>

The seabed of the central part and Dvina Bay is covered in [[silt]] and sand, whereas the bottom of the northern part, the [[Kandalaksha Gulf]] and Onega Bay is a mixture of sand and stones. Ice age deposits often emerge near the sea shores. Northwestern coasts are tall and rocky but the slope is much weaker at the southeastern side.<ref name=bse/>

The White Sea contains a large number of islands, but most of them are small. The main island group is the [[Solovetsky Islands]], located almost in the middle of the sea, near the entrance to Onega Bay. [[Kiy Island]] in Onega Bay is significant due to a historic monastery. Velikiy Island, located close to the shore, is the largest island in the Kandalaksha Gulf.<ref name=brit/>

===Hydrography and bathymetry===
The White Sea is a water-filled depression in the block of a continental shelf known as the [[Baltic Shield]]. Its bottom is very uneven and contains the Kandalaksha Hollow in the northwest and the Solovetsky Islands in the south. Also, the Onega Bay has many small underwater elevations. The opening and the ''gorlo'' of the sea are rather shallow, with depths about 50 metres or less. There is an underwater ridge in the northern part of the ''gorlo'', resulting in maximum depths of 40 metres in that part. This hinders water exchange between the White and Barents seas.<ref name=brit/><ref name=rev/> The exchange is assisted by the [[tide]]s, which are semidiurnal (rising twice a day), with the amplitude increasing from 1 metre on the south to 10 metres in Mezen Bay. Currents are rather weak in the open seas with the speed below 1&nbsp;km/h, but they significantly strengthen in the bays.<ref name=bse/> The tidal waves are much faster than the regular currents and reach the speeds of 9&nbsp;km/h in Mezen Bay, 3.6&nbsp;km/h in Onega Bay and 1.3&nbsp;km/h in the Kandalaksha Gulf.<ref name=rev/>

Rivers bring annually about 215&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> of fresh water, on average, mostly to the Onega, Mezen and Dvina bays. The Northern Dvina alone may contribute up to 171&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> in some years, with the Mezen, Onega, Kem and Vyg rivers adding up to 38.5, 27.0, 12.5 and 11.5&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup>, respectively. About 40% of this volume is brought during the snow melting in May, and the inflow is minimal in February–March. This inflow raises and lowers the sea level that promotes the water exchange with the Barents Sea. As a result, annually, about 2,000&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> and 2,200&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> flow in and out of the White Sea, respectively. The inflow of fresh water in spring decreases the surface salinity in the top 5–10-metre layer to 23‰ (parts per thousand) in the eastern and 26–27‰ in the western parts of the sea, reaching 10–12‰ in Dvina Bay; it also increases the content of [[silicon]] and [[silicate]]s in water, which is a characteristic feature of the White Sea.<ref name=rev/>

Storms are the strongest in October–November. Shallow sea depths reduce the wave height to the average of 1 metre, sometimes reaching 3–5 metres. The sea is quiet in July–August.<ref name=rev/>

===Climate===
[[File:modis white sea.jpg|thumb|right|Two satellite photos of the White Sea taken on 23 April 2000 (top) and 3 May 2001 (bottom)]]
The climate varies between [[Polar climate|polar]] and [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] with frequent fogs and clouds. Winds are predominantly southwestern in winter with speeds of 4–8&nbsp;m/s. They bring cold air from the south, establishing the temperature of about −15&nbsp;°C (February) over most of the sea. The northern part is warmer at about −9&nbsp;°C, sometimes reaching −6&nbsp;°C, due to the warm air masses from the Atlantic. Arctic anticyclones, however, change winds to the northeastern ones, bringing much colder weather with temperatures of about −25&nbsp;°C. Summers are cold, cloudy and relatively humid, with northeastern winds and frequent rains. Average July temperatures are 8–10&nbsp;°C. Occasional southeastern winds bring warm air from Europe, raising the temperature to 17–19&nbsp;°C and sometimes even to 30&nbsp;°C. Annual precipitations increase from 282&nbsp;mm in the north 529 in the south.<ref name=bse/><ref name=rev/>

In winter, from October–November to April–May, the sea freezes, with the average January water temperatures of −1.9&nbsp;°C in the north, between −1.3 and −1.7 °С in the centre, and between −0.5 and −0.7 °С in the bays. These variations are due to the distribution of water salinity across the sea, which increases from 24 to 26‰ in the centre to 30.5‰ in the ''gorlo'', reaching 34.0–34.5‰ toward the Barents Sea. The freezing period varies from year to year as shown in the satellite image to the right.<ref name=bse/> The ice is not stationary, but 90% of it is floating and is continuously removed to the Barents Sea. Ice thickness is usually about 40&nbsp;cm but may reach 150&nbsp;cm in cold winters.<ref name=rev/>

In summer, surface water warms up to 15 °С in the central part, but remains relatively cold in the north, at 7–8 °С, due to the water exchange between the surface and the cold bottom part which is enhanced by the shallow depths in the northern parts. Deep sea (about 100 m or more) is characterised by stable temperature (−1.4 °С) and salinity (30‰).<ref name=bse/><ref name=rev/> The depth distribution of water temperature is very inhomogeneous across the sea. For example, at the exit from Dvina Bay, water temperature drops to 0&nbsp;°C at the depth of only 12–15 m, but the same temperature is reached at 65 m at the exit from the Kandalaksha Gulf.<ref name=rev/>

==History==
[[File:Whiteseamap.jpg|thumb|right|A map of the White Sea (1635)]]
[[File:Историко-культурный комплекс Соловецких островов.jpg|right|thumb|[[Solovetsky Monastery]]]]
Residents of [[Veliky Novgorod|Novgorod]] knew of the White Sea from at least the 11th century and rapidly explored its commercial significance for navigation and its coastal forests rich in [[fur trade|fur animals]]. One of the earliest settlements near the sea shores grew up in the late 14th century at [[Kholmogory, Arkhangelsk Oblast|Kholmogory]], on the [[Northern Dvina]]. From there, in 1492, a merchant fleet laden with grain and carrying ambassadors of [[Ivan III of Russia]] sailed to Denmark, marking the establishment of the first international seaport in [[Russia]].<ref name=h1/>

The first foreign ship to arrive in Kholmogory was the English ''[[Edward Bonaventure]]'' commanded by [[Richard Chancellor]] in 1553.<ref>
Compare: {{cite book
| last1                 = March
| first1                = G. Patrick
| chapter               =  3: Ivan IV and the Muscovite ''Drang nach Osten''
| title                 = Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=eNc7bwXKs_kC
| location              = Westport, Connecticut
| publisher             = Praeger Publishers
| date      = 1996
| page                  = 26
| isbn                  = 9780275956486
| access-date            = 2017-02-08
| quote                 = It was in pursuit of a northeast passage that the English under the leadership of Richard Chancellor arrived in Kholmogory in 1553.
}}
</ref> Together with two other ships under the command of [[Hugh Willoughby]], his crew had sought a northern route to the [[Indies]], especially India and China. The expedition, sponsored by King [[Edward VI of England]] and a group of about 240 English merchants, had London's authorisation to establish trade connections. The ships of Willoughby were separated and the other two were lost at sea, but ''Edward Bonaventure'' managed to pass the White Sea and reach Kholmogory, from where Chancellor was escorted to Moscow to meet the Russian [[Tsar]], [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV]]. Returning from Russia in 1554, Chancellor brought back a detailed description of Moscow and the Russian north, which were largely unknown to Europe, as well as a letter from the Tsar expressing desire to establish trade relations with England. In 1555 [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary]] issued a charter authorising the [[Muscovy Company]] to trade with Russia via the White Sea route.<ref>Henryk Zins [https://books.google.com/books?id=IK_nAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 ''England and the Baltic in the Elizabethan era''], Manchester University Press, 1972 {{ISBN|0-87471-117-7}} pp. 35,38</ref><ref>Isabel De Madariaga [https://books.google.com/books?id=xdFVn1v3FMUC&pg=PA121 ''Ivan the Terrible''], Yale University Press, 2006 {{ISBN|0-300-11973-9}} p. 121</ref>

Dutch ships soon followed the English, and the port of Kholmogory became busy with shipments of fur and fish. Local and foreign shops and factories were established in the city at that time. The port was reinforced with a fortress which sustained a siege by the Polish-Lithuanian army in 1613. Increasing traffic overloaded the port, which relied on shallow river-waters and had limited ship-capacity. However, instead of expanding the old port, Ivan IV established a new one down-river in 1584, called New Kholmogory, which from 1596 began to become known as Arkhangelsk.<ref name=h1>[http://holmogory.poccia.ru/index.php Kholmogory web portal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100623024412/http://holmogory.poccia.ru/index.php |date=23 June 2010 }} (in Russian)</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lomonosovo.ru/joom/content/view/9/1/ |title=Kholmogory |access-date=2010-09-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090209051525/http://www.lomonosovo.ru/joom/content/view/9/1/ |archive-date=9 February 2009}}. lomonosovo.ru (in Russian)</ref>

Between the 15th and early 18th centuries, the White Sea served as the major trade route in and out of Russia. This role decreased later after the foundation of [[Saint Petersburg]] (1703), which opened a more direct ice-free connection between Russia and the bulk of Western Europe via the Baltic Sea. From the 1920s, most northern Russian sea shipments diverted from the White Sea to the new port of [[Murmansk]] (officially founded in 1916), where the waters did not freeze in winter.<ref name=bse/>

== Legislative status ==

The entire water area of the White Sea is the [[territorial waters]] of the Russian Federation. Any movement of foreign vessels on the White Sea is carried out in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chernov |first1=Ilya A. |title=The White Sea |url=https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/6527 |website=encyclopedia.pub |access-date=14 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

==Fauna and economy==
{{see also|Kandalaksha Nature Reserve}}
The sea hosts more than 700 species of [[invertebrate]]s, about 60 species of fish, and five species of marine mammals, including the friendly [[Beluga whale|beluga]] and the white whale. Several other dolphin species, such as [[harbour porpoise]]s, appear less frequently while larger [[whale]]s such as [[bowhead whale|bowhead]], [[humpback whale|humpback]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kandalaksha-reserve.ru/novosti-1/72-den-kita/page,14/ |title=День кита. |access-date=29 January 2017 |archive-date=7 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707091305/http://www.kandalaksha-reserve.ru/novosti-1/72-den-kita/page,14/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[rorqual]]s, [[northern bottlenose whale|northern bottlenose]], [[orca]]s have been considered as rare visitors to the waters<ref>Filatov N., Pozdnyakov D., Johannessen M.O.,, Pettersson H.L.,, Bobylev P.L., 2005, White Sea: Its Marine Environment and Ecosystem Dynamics Influenced by Global Change, pp.174, Praxis Publishing, Springer, retrieved on 06-05-2014</ref> while actual frequency of occurrences within White Sea basin is not specified.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kandalaksha-reserve.ru/novosti-1/143-bolshoy-gost-v-belom-more/page,6/ |title=Большой гость в Белом море |access-date=29 January 2017 |archive-date=7 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707091305/http://kandalaksha-reserve.ru/novosti-1/143-bolshoy-gost-v-belom-more/page,6/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The fishing industry is relatively small, mostly targeting [[harp seal]], [[ringed seal]], [[herring]], [[saffron cod]], [[European smelt]], [[Atlantic cod]] and [[Atlantic salmon]]. There is a developing seaweed industry.<ref name=bse/><ref name=brit/><ref name=rev/>

The White Sea is an important traffic centre of northwestern Russia, interconnecting various economic regions and providing an outlet to the foreign routes. The [[White Sea–Baltic Canal]] links it through [[Lake Onega]] to the [[Baltic Sea]] and the major city and port of [[Saint Petersburg]]. The Baltic Sea, in turn, is connected by the [[Volga–Baltic Waterway]] to the [[Volga River]], [[Black Sea|Black]], [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]], and [[Sea of Azov|Azov]] seas. The major ports on the White Sea are Arkhangelsk, [[Belomorsk]], [[Onega, Russia|Onega]], [[Mezen, Mezensky District, Arkhangelsk Oblast|Mezen]], [[Kem, Russia|Kem]], [[Kandalaksha]] and [[Umba, Russia|Umba]]. Despite being frozen in winter, the sea remains navigable all year around because of deployment of [[icebreaker]]s.<ref name=brit/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|White Sea}}
*[http://www.fimr.fi/en/muut_meret/en_GB/the_white_sea/ Portrait of the White Sea offered by the Baltic Sea Portal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813111620/http://www.fimr.fi/en/muut_meret/en_GB/the_white_sea |date=13 August 2009 }}
*{{Cite Collier's|wstitle=White Sea|short=x}}
*{{Cite NSRW|wstitle=White Sea|short=x}}

{{List of seas}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:White Sea| ]]
[[Category:Seas of the Arctic Ocean]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of the Barents Sea]]
[[Category:Seas of Russia]]
[[Category:European seas]]