Editing Vorticity

{{short description|Pseudovector field describing the local rotation of a continuum near some point}}
{{continuum mechanics|cTopic=Fluid mechanics}}

In [[continuum mechanics]], '''vorticity''' is a [[pseudovector]] (or axial vector) [[vector field|field]] that describes the local [[rotation|spinning]] motion of a continuum near some point (the tendency of something to rotate<ref>[http://www.atmos.washington.edu/2004Q4/211/Lecture10_notes.html Lecture Notes from University of Washington] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016224443/http://www.atmos.washington.edu/2004Q4/211/Lecture10_notes.html |date=October 16, 2015 }}</ref>), as would be seen by an observer located at that point and traveling along with the [[Fluid dynamics|flow]]. It is an important quantity in [[Fluid dynamics|the dynamical theory]] of [[fluids]] and provides a convenient framework for understanding a variety of complex flow phenomena, such as the formation and motion of [[vortex ring]]s.<ref name="PrincetonCompanion">{{Citation|last=Moffatt|first=H.K.|author-link=Keith Moffatt|year=2015|title=Fluid Dynamics|editor=Nicholas J. Higham|display-editors=etal|encyclopedia=The Princeton Companion to Applied Mathematics|pages=467–476|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref><ref name="Guyon2001">{{cite book|last1=Guyon|first1=Etienne|last2=Hulin|first2=Jean-Pierre|last3=Petit|first3=Luc|last4=Mitescu|first4=Catalin D.|year=2001|title=Physical Hydrodynamics|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-851746-7|pages=105, 268–310}}</ref>

Mathematically, the vorticity <math>\boldsymbol{\omega}</math> is the [[curl (mathematics)|curl]] of the [[flow velocity]] <math>\mathbf v</math>:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Acheson|first1=D.J.|author-link=David Acheson (mathematician)|year=1990|title=Elementary Fluid Dynamics|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-859679-0|page=10}}</ref><ref name="Guyon2001"/>

:<math>\boldsymbol{\omega} \equiv \nabla \times \mathbf v\,,</math>

where <math>\nabla</math> is the [[nabla operator]]. Conceptually, <math>\boldsymbol{\omega}</math> could be determined by marking parts of a continuum in a small [[Neighbourhood (mathematics)|neighborhood]] of the point in question, and watching their ''relative'' [[Displacement (geometry)|displacements]] as they move along the flow. The vorticity <math>\boldsymbol{\omega}</math> would be twice the mean [[angular velocity]] vector of those particles relative to their [[center of mass]], oriented according to the [[right-hand rule]]. By its own definition, the vorticity vector is a [[solenoidal]] field since <math>\nabla\cdot\boldsymbol\omega=0.</math>

In a [[two-dimensional flow]], <math>\boldsymbol{\omega}</math> is always perpendicular to the plane of the flow, and can therefore be considered a [[scalar field]].

The dynamics of vorticity are fundamentally linked to drag through the Josephson-Anderson relation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Eyink |first=Gregory L. |title=Josephson-Anderson relation and the classical D’Alembert paradox |journal=Physical Review X |volume=11 |issue=3 |year=2021 |pages=031054 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevX.11.031054|arxiv=2103.15177 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Samvit |last2=Eyink |first2=Gregory L. |title=A Josephson–Anderson relation for drag in classical channel flows with streamwise periodicity: Effects of wall roughness |journal=Physics of Fluids |volume=36 |issue=9 |year=2024 |doi=10.1063/5.0170795}}</ref>

==Mathematical definition and properties==
Mathematically, the vorticity of a three-dimensional flow is a pseudovector field, usually denoted by <math>\boldsymbol{\omega}</math>, defined as the [[curl (mathematics)|curl]] of the velocity field <math>\mathbf v</math> describing the continuum motion. In [[Cartesian coordinates]]:

:<math>\begin{align}
  \boldsymbol{\omega} = \nabla \times \mathbf v = \left(
         \dfrac{\partial v_z}{\partial y} - \dfrac{\partial v_y}{\partial z},
         \dfrac{\partial v_x}{\partial z} - \dfrac{\partial v_z}{\partial x},
         \dfrac{\partial v_y}{\partial x} - \dfrac{\partial v_x}{\partial y}
       \right) \,.
\end{align}</math>

We may also express this in index notation as <math> \omega_i=\varepsilon_{ijk}\frac{\partial v_k}{\partial x_j}</math>.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kundu |first=Pijush K. |title=Fluid mechanics |last2=Cohen |first2=Ira M. |last3=Dowling |first3=David R. |last4=Tryggvason |first4=Gretar |date=2016 |publisher=Elsevier, Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-405935-1 |edition=Sixth |location=Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London}}</ref> In words, the vorticity tells how the velocity vector changes when one moves by an infinitesimal distance in a direction perpendicular to it.

In a two-dimensional flow where the velocity is independent of the <math>z</math>-coordinate and has no <math>z</math>-component, the vorticity vector is always parallel to the <math>z</math>-axis, and therefore can be expressed as a scalar field multiplied by a constant unit vector <math>\hat{z}</math>:
:<math>\begin{align}
  \boldsymbol{\omega} = \nabla \times \mathbf v    = \left(\frac{\partial v_y}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial v_x}{\partial y}\right)\mathbf e_z\,.
\end{align}</math>

The vorticity is also related to the flow's [[circulation (fluid dynamics)|circulation]] (line integral of the velocity) along a closed path by the (classical) [[Stokes' theorem]]. Namely, for any [[infinitesimal]] [[Differential (infinitesimal)|surface element]] {{math|''C''}} with [[normal (geometry)|normal direction]] <math>\mathbf n</math> and area <math>dA</math>, the circulation <math>d\Gamma</math> along the [[perimeter]] of <math>C</math> is the [[dot product]] <math>\boldsymbol{\omega} \cdot (\mathbf n \, dA)</math> where <math>\boldsymbol{\omega}</math> is the vorticity at the center of <math>C</math>.<ref name=Clancy7.11>Clancy, L.J., ''Aerodynamics'', Section 7.11</ref>

Since vorticity is an axial vector, it can be associated with a second-order antisymmetric tensor <math>\boldsymbol\Omega</math> (the so-called vorticity or rotation tensor), which is said to be the dual of <math>\boldsymbol\omega</math>. The relation between the two quantities, in index notation, are given by

:<math>\Omega_{ij}=\frac{1}{2}\varepsilon_{ijk}\omega_k, \qquad \omega_i = \varepsilon_{ijk}\Omega_{jk}</math>

where <math>\varepsilon_{ijk}</math> is the three-dimensional [[Levi-Civita symbol|Levi-Civita tensor]]. The vorticity tensor is simply the antisymmetric part of the tensor <math>\nabla\mathbf v</math>, i.e.,

:<math>\boldsymbol\Omega = \frac{1}{2}\left[ (\nabla\mathbf v)^T-\nabla\mathbf v\right] \quad \text{or} \quad \Omega_{ij} = \frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{\partial v_j}{\partial x_i}-\frac{\partial v_i}{\partial x_j}\right).</math>

==Examples==
In a mass of continuum that is rotating like a rigid body, the vorticity is twice the [[angular velocity]] vector of that rotation. This is the case, for example, in the central core of a [[Rankine vortex]].<ref>Acheson (1990), p. 15</ref>

The vorticity may be nonzero even when all particles are flowing along straight and parallel [[pathline]]s, if there is [[shear (fluid)|shear]] (that is, if the flow speed varies across [[Streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines|streamlines]]). For example, in the [[laminar flow]] within a pipe with constant [[cross section (geometry)|cross section]], all particles travel parallel to the axis of the pipe; but faster near that axis, and practically stationary next to the walls. The vorticity will be zero on the axis, and maximum near the walls, where the shear is largest.

Conversely, a flow may have zero vorticity even though its particles travel along curved trajectories. An example is the ideal [[vortex|irrotational vortex]], where most particles rotate about some straight axis, with speed inversely proportional to their distances to that axis. A small parcel of continuum that does not straddle the axis will be rotated in one sense but sheared in the opposite sense, in such a way that their mean angular velocity ''about their center of mass'' is zero.

:{| border="0"
|-
| style="text-align:center;" colspan=3 | Example flows:
|-
| valign="top" | [[File:Vorticity Figure 01 a-m.gif]]
| valign="top" | [[File:Vorticity Figure 03 a-m.gif]]
| valign="top" | [[File:Vorticity Figure 02 a-m.gif]]
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | Rigid-body-like vortex<br />{{math|''v'' ∝ ''r''}}
| style="text-align:center;" | Parallel flow with shear
| style="text-align:center;" | Irrotational vortex<br />{{math|''v'' ∝ {{sfrac|1|''r''}}}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;" colspan=3 | where {{mvar|v}} is the velocity of the flow, {{mvar|r}} is the distance to the center of the vortex and ∝ indicates [[proportionality (mathematics)|proportionality]].<br />Absolute velocities around the highlighted point:
|-
| valign="top" | [[File:Vorticity Figure 01 b.png]]
| valign="top" | [[File:Vorticity Figure 03 b.png]]
| valign="top" | [[File:Vorticity Figure 02 b.png]]
|-
| style="text-align:center;" colspan=3 | Relative velocities (magnified) around the highlighted point
|-
| valign="top" | [[File:Vorticity Figure 01 c.png]]
| valign="top" | [[File:Vorticity Figure 03 c.png]]
| valign="top" | [[File:Vorticity Figure 02 c.png]]
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | Vorticity ≠ 0
| style="text-align:center;" | Vorticity ≠ 0
| style="text-align:center;" | Vorticity = 0
|}

Another way to visualize vorticity is to imagine that, instantaneously, a tiny part of the continuum becomes solid and the rest of the flow disappears. If that tiny new solid particle is rotating, rather than just moving with the flow, then there is vorticity in the flow. In the figure below, the left subfigure demonstrates no vorticity, and the right subfigure demonstrates existence of vorticity.

:[[File:Illustration of vorticity.svg]]

== Evolution ==
The evolution of the vorticity field in time is described by the [[vorticity equation]], which can be derived from the [[Navier–Stokes equations]].<ref>Guyon, et al (2001), pp. 289–290</ref>

In many real flows where the viscosity can be neglected (more precisely, in flows with high [[Reynolds number]]), the vorticity field can be modeled by a collection of discrete vortices, the vorticity being negligible everywhere except in small regions of space surrounding the axes of the vortices. This is true in the case of two-dimensional [[potential flow]] (i.e. two-dimensional zero viscosity flow), in which case the flowfield can be modeled as a [[complex number|complex-valued]] field on the [[complex plane]].

Vorticity is useful for understanding how ideal potential flow solutions can be perturbed to model real flows. In general, the presence of viscosity causes a [[diffusion]] of vorticity away from the vortex cores into the general flow field; this flow is accounted for by a diffusion term in the vorticity transport equation.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Kip S.|last1=Thorne|first2=Roger D.|last2=Blandford|author-link1=Kip Thorne|title=Modern Classical Physics: Optics, Fluids, Plasmas, Elasticity, Relativity, and Statistical Physics|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2017|isbn=9780691159027|page=741}}</ref>

==Vortex lines and vortex tubes==
A '''vortex line''' or '''vorticity line''' is a line which is everywhere tangent to the local vorticity vector. Vortex lines are defined by the relation<ref name=Kundu>{{cite book | author=Kundu P and Cohen I | title=Fluid Mechanics}}</ref>

:<math>\frac{dx}{\omega_x} = \frac{dy}{\omega_y} = \frac{dz}{\omega_z}\,,</math>

where <math>\boldsymbol{\omega} = (\omega_x, \omega_y, \omega_z)</math> is the vorticity vector in [[Cartesian coordinates]].

A '''vortex tube''' is the surface in the continuum formed by all vortex lines passing through a given (reducible) closed curve in the continuum. The 'strength' of a vortex tube (also called '''vortex flux''')<ref>[http://www.astro.uu.nl/~achterb/aigd/aigd6.ppt Introduction to Astrophysical Gas Dynamics] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614145254/http://www.astro.uu.nl/~achterb/aigd/aigd6.ppt |date=June 14, 2011 }}</ref> is the integral of the vorticity across a cross-section of the tube, and is the same everywhere along the tube (because vorticity has zero divergence). It is a consequence of [[Helmholtz's theorems]] (or equivalently, of [[Kelvin's circulation theorem]]) that in an inviscid fluid the 'strength' of the vortex tube is also constant with time. Viscous effects introduce frictional losses and time dependence.<ref>G.K. Batchelor, ''An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics'' (1967), Section 2.6, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521098173</ref>

In a three-dimensional flow, vorticity (as measured by the [[volume integral]] of the square of its magnitude) can be intensified when a vortex line is extended — a phenomenon known as [[vortex stretching]].<ref>Batchelor, section 5.2</ref> This phenomenon occurs in the formation of a bathtub vortex in outflowing water, and the build-up of a tornado by rising air currents.

== Vorticity meters ==

=== Rotating-vane vorticity meter ===
A rotating-vane vorticity meter was invented by Russian hydraulic engineer A. Ya. Milovich (1874–1958). In 1913 he proposed a cork with four blades attached as a device qualitatively showing the magnitude of the vertical projection of the vorticity and demonstrated a motion-picture photography of the float's motion on the water surface in a model of a river bend.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Joukovsky N.E. |author-link=Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovsky |year=1914 |title=On the motion of water at a turn of a river|journal=[[Matematicheskii Sbornik]]|volume=28}}. Reprinted in: {{cite book |title=Collected works|url=http://books.e-heritage.ru/book/10075055|volume=4|location=Moscow; Leningrad |date=1937|pages=193–216; 231–233 (abstract in English)}} "Professor Milovich's float", as Joukovsky refers this vorticity meter to, is schematically shown in figure on page 196 of Collected works.</ref>

Rotating-vane vorticity meters are commonly shown in educational films on continuum mechanics (famous examples include the NCFMF's "Vorticity"<ref>[http://web.mit.edu/hml/ncfmf.html National Committee for Fluid Mechanics Films] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021122939/http://web.mit.edu/hml/ncfmf.html |date=October 21, 2016 }}</ref> and "Fundamental Principles of Flow" by Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research<ref>[http://www.iihr.uiowa.edu/research/publications-and-media/films-by-hunter-rouse/ Films by Hunter Rouse — IIHR — Hydroscience & Engineering] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421032612/http://www.iihr.uiowa.edu/research/publications-and-media/films-by-hunter-rouse/ |date=April 21, 2016 }}</ref>).

==Specific sciences==

===Aeronautics===
In [[aerodynamics]], the [[lift (force)|lift]] distribution over a [[finite wing]] may be approximated by assuming that each spanwise segment of the wing has a semi-infinite trailing vortex behind it. It is then possible to solve for the strength of the vortices using the criterion that there be no flow induced through the surface of the wing. This procedure is called the vortex panel method of [[computational fluid dynamics]]. The strengths of the vortices are then summed to find the total approximate [[circulation (fluid dynamics)|circulation]] about the wing. According to the [[Kutta–Joukowski theorem]], lift per unit of span is the product of circulation, airspeed, and air density.

===Atmospheric sciences===
The '''relative vorticity''' is the vorticity relative to the Earth induced by the air velocity field. This air velocity field is often modeled as a two-dimensional flow parallel to the ground, so that the relative vorticity vector is generally scalar rotation quantity perpendicular to the ground. Vorticity is positive when – looking down onto the Earth's surface – the wind turns counterclockwise. In the northern hemisphere, positive vorticity is called [[cyclonic rotation]], and negative vorticity is [[anticyclone|anticyclonic rotation]]; the nomenclature is reversed in the Southern Hemisphere.

The '''absolute vorticity''' is computed from the air velocity relative to an inertial frame, and therefore includes a term due to the Earth's rotation, the [[Coriolis parameter]].

The '''[[potential vorticity]]''' is absolute vorticity divided by the vertical spacing between levels of constant [[potential temperature|(potential) temperature]] (or [[entropy]]). The absolute vorticity of an air mass will change if the air mass is stretched (or compressed) in the vertical direction, but the potential vorticity is [[Conservation law (physics)|conserved]] in an [[adiabatic]] flow. As [[adiabatic]] flow predominates in the atmosphere, the potential vorticity is useful as an approximate [[Flow tracer|tracer]] of air masses in the atmosphere over the timescale of a few days, particularly when viewed on levels of constant entropy.

The [[barotropic vorticity equation]] is the simplest way for forecasting the movement of [[Rossby wave]]s (that is, the [[trough (meteorology)|troughs]] and [[ridge]]s of 500&nbsp;[[pascal (unit)|hPa]] [[geopotential height]]) over a limited amount of time (a few days). In the 1950s, the first successful programs for [[numerical weather forecasting]] utilized that equation.

In modern numerical weather forecasting models and [[general circulation model]]s (GCMs), vorticity may be one of the predicted variables, in which case the corresponding time-dependent equation is a [[prognostic equation]].

Related to the concept of vorticity is the [[Hydrodynamical helicity|helicity]] <math>H(t)</math>, defined as

:<math>H(t) = \int_V \mathbf v \cdot \boldsymbol{\omega} \, dV</math>
where the integral is over a given volume <math>V</math>. In atmospheric science, helicity of the air motion is important in forecasting [[supercell]]s and the potential for [[tornado|tornadic]] activity.<ref name="Scheeler2017">{{cite journal|last1=Scheeler|first1=Martin W.|last2=van Rees|first2=Wim M.|last3=Kedia|first3=Hridesh|last4=Kleckner|first4=Dustin|last5=Irvine|first5=William T. M.|title=Complete measurement of helicity and its dynamics in vortex tubes|journal=Science|volume=357|issue=6350|year=2017|pages=487–491|issn=0036-8075|doi=10.1126/science.aam6897|pmid=28774926|bibcode=2017Sci...357..487S|s2cid=23287311|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Barotropic vorticity equation]]
* [[D'Alembert's paradox]]
* [[Enstrophy]]
* [[Palinstrophy]]
* [[Velocity potential]]
* [[Vortex]]
* [[Vortex tube]]
* [[Vortex stretching]]
* [[Horseshoe vortex]]
* [[Wingtip vortices]]

=== Fluid dynamics ===
* [[Biot–Savart law#Aerodynamics applications|Biot–Savart law]]
* [[Circulation (fluid dynamics)|Circulation]]
* [[Vorticity equation]]s
* [[Kutta–Joukowski theorem]]

=== Atmospheric sciences ===
* [[Prognostic equation]]
* [[Carl-Gustaf Rossby]]
* [[Hans Ertel]]
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==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last1=Acheson|first1=D.J.|author-link=David Acheson (mathematician)|year=1990|title=Elementary Fluid Dynamics|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-859679-0}}
* {{cite book|last1=Landau|first1=L. D.|last2=Lifshitz|first2=E.M. |title=Fluid Mechanics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eVKbCgAAQBAJ|edition=2nd|year=1987|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-057073-0}}
* {{cite book|last1=Pozrikidis|first1=C.|year=2011|title=Introduction to Theoretical and Computational Fluid Dynamics|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-975207-2}}
* {{cite book|last1=Guyon|first1=Etienne|last2=Hulin|first2=Jean-Pierre|last3=Petit|first3=Luc|last4=Mitescu|first4=Catalin D.|year=2001|title=Physical Hydrodynamics|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-851746-7}}
* {{citation | first=G. K. | last=Batchelor | author-link=George Batchelor | title=An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2000 | orig-year=1967 | isbn=0-521-66396-2}}
* Clancy, L.J. (1975), ''Aerodynamics'', Pitman Publishing Limited, London {{ISBN|0-273-01120-0}}
* "''[https://web.archive.org/web/20060427140337/http://www.weather.com/glossary/v.html Weather Glossary]''"' The Weather Channel Interactive, Inc.. 2004.
* "''[http://www.tpub.com/content/aerographer/14010/css/14010_18.htm Vorticity]''". Integrated Publishing.

==Further reading==
* Ohkitani, K., "''Elementary Account Of Vorticity And Related Equations''". Cambridge University Press. January 30, 2005. {{ISBN|0-521-81984-9}}
* [[Alexandre Chorin|Chorin, Alexandre J.]], "''Vorticity and Turbulence''". Applied Mathematical Sciences, Vol 103, Springer-Verlag. March 1, 1994. {{ISBN|0-387-94197-5}}
* [[Andrew Majda|Majda, Andrew J.]], Andrea L. Bertozzi, "''Vorticity and Incompressible Flow''". Cambridge University Press; 2002. {{ISBN|0-521-63948-4}}
* [[David Tritton|Tritton, D. J.]], "''Physical Fluid Dynamics''". Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 1977. {{ISBN|0-19-854493-6}}
* Arfken, G., "''Mathematical Methods for Physicists''", 3rd ed. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida. 1985. {{ISBN|0-12-059820-5}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* Weisstein, Eric W., "''[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Vorticity.html Vorticity]''". Scienceworld.wolfram.com.
* Doswell III, Charles A., "''[http://www.cimms.ou.edu/~doswell/vorticity/vorticity_primer.html A Primer on Vorticity for Application in Supercells and Tornadoes]''". Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies, Norman, Oklahoma.
* Cramer, M. S., "''Navier–Stokes Equations -- [https://web.archive.org/web/20040723231025/http://www.navier-stokes.net/nsvint.htm Vorticity Transport Theorems]: Introduction''". Foundations of Fluid Mechanics.
* Parker, Douglas, "''ENVI 2210 – Atmosphere and Ocean Dynamics, [https://web.archive.org/web/20040504110849/http://www.env.leeds.ac.uk/envi2210/lectures/lect9.html 9: Vorticity]''". School of the Environment, University of Leeds. September 2001.
* [[James R. Graham|Graham, James R.]], "''Astronomy 202: Astrophysical Gas Dynamics''". Astronomy Department, [[UC Berkeley]].
** "''[https://web.archive.org/web/20040702114551/http://astron.berkeley.edu/~jrg/ay202/node92.html The vorticity equation: incompressible and barotropic fluids]''".
** "''[https://web.archive.org/web/20040702055351/http://astron.berkeley.edu/~jrg/ay202/node93.html Interpretation of the vorticity equation]''".
** "''[https://web.archive.org/web/20040702130555/http://astron.berkeley.edu/~jrg/ay202/node94.html Kelvin's vorticity theorem for incompressible or barotropic flow]''".
* "''[http://www.scd.ucar.edu/css/software/spherepack/ Spherepack 3.1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040622182810/http://www.scd.ucar.edu/css/software/spherepack/ |date=2004-06-22 }}''". (includes a collection of FORTRAN vorticity program)
* "''[http://132.206.43.151:5080/realtime/main_page.html Mesoscale Compressible Community (MC2)]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Real-Time Model Predictions''". (Potential vorticity analysis)
{{Meteorological variables}}

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