Editing Uthman

{{Short description|3rd Rashidun caliph from 644 to 656}}
{{For|other people with the name|Usman (name)}}
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{{Use Oxford spelling|date=June 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Uthman<br />{{lang|ar|عُثْمَان}}
| title        = {{ubl|{{transliteration|ar|[[Amir al-Mu'minin]]}}|{{transliteration|ar|[[List of caliphs|Khalifat Allah]]}}|{{transliteration|ar|[[Islamic honorifics#Muhammad's companions|Raḍiya Ilāhu ʿAnhū]]}}}}
| image        = Ayasofya 13 (cropped).JPG
| image_size   = 220
| caption      = Calligraphic seal featuring Uthman's name, on display in the [[Hagia Sophia]], Istanbul
| succession   = 3rd [[caliph]] of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]
| reign        = 6 November 644 –<br />17 June 656
| predecessor  = [[Umar]]
| successor    = [[Ali]]
| birth_date   = {{circa|573/576}}
| birth_place  = [[Hejaz]], [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|Arabia]]
| death_date   = 17 June 656 (aged 80/83)<br />(12<ref>''[[Musannaf Ibn Abi Shaybah]]'', vol. 13, p. 388, [https://archive.org/stream/waq110421/13_110433#page/n388/mode/2up no. 38727], status of naration: ''[[Sahih]]''.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0xBaDwAAQBAJ&q=%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%AF+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7+%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82+%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A9+%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D9%87+%D8%B9%D9%86+%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%8A+%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D8%AF%D9%8A&pg=PT144 |title=سيرة ومناقب عثمان بن عفان |first=Muhammad Hamid |last=Muhammad |date=7 May 2018 |publisher=Dar al-Taqwa |isbn=9789776603585 |quote=استشهد في أوسط أيام التشريق (12 ذي الحجة) لصحة نقله عن أبي عثمان النهدي، المعاصر للحادثة. وما سواه من أقوال لم يصح إسناد شيء منها، وكل ما جاء به من أسانيد فهي ضعيفة، وبعض منها صدر ممن لم يعاصر الحادثة. [He was martyred in the middle of the days of Tashreeq, because it was reported by Abu Uthman Al-Nahdi, a contemporary of the incident. As for other sayings, none of them are authentic, and all the chain of narrators that scholars brought are [[Da'if|weak]], and some of them were issued by those who did not contemporary with the incident.]}}{{Dead link |date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>/18 [[Dhu al-Hijjah]] 35{{nbsp}}AH)<ref>[R.{{nbsp}}Stephen Humphreys (transl.), [https://archive.org/stream/TabariEnglish/Tabari_Volume_15#page/n273  ''The History of al-Tabari: Volume XV. The Crisis of the Early Caliphate''], (New York, [[SUNY Press|State University of New York Press]], 1990), pp.{{nbsp}}250–251.]</ref><ref>Wilferd Madelung, ''The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate'' (Cambridge, [[Cambridge University Press]], 1997), p.{{nbsp}}135.</ref>
| death_place  = [[Medina]], Hejaz, [[Rashidun Caliphate]]
| burial_place = [[Jannat al-Baqi]], Medina
| father       = [[Affan ibn Abi al-As]]
| mother       = [[Arwa bint Kurayz]]
| religion     = [[Islam]]
| spouse       = {{plainlist|
* [[Ruqayya bint Muhammad]]
* [[Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad]]
* Fakhita bint Ghazwan
* Asma bint Abi Jahl
* Umm al-Banin Mulayka bint Uyayna
* Fatima bint al-Walid
* Bint Khalid ibn Asid
* Umm 'Amr Umm Najm bint Jundab
* Ramla bint Shayba
* Bunana
* [[Na'ila bint al-Furafisa]]}}
| issue        = {{plainlist|
* [[Amr ibn Uthman|Amr]]
* [[Aban ibn Uthman|Aban]] 
* [[Sa'id ibn Uthman|Sa'id]]
* [[Abd Allah ibn Uthman|Abd Allah]]
}}
| issue-link   = Family tree of Uthman#Children and Descendants
| issue-pipe   = (among others)
| house        = [[Quraysh]] ([[Banu Umayya]])
| house-type   = Tribe
}}
{{Uthman}}
{{Sunni Islam|Rightly-Guided Caliphs}}

'''Uthman ibn Affan'''{{efn|{{langx|ar|عُثْمَان بْن عَفَّان|translit=ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān}}}} ({{circa|573 or 576}}{{snd}}17 June 656) was the third [[caliph]] of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], ruling from 644 until [[Assassination of Uthman|his assassination]] in 656. Uthman, a second cousin, son-in-law, and notable [[Companions of the Prophet|companion]] of the Islamic Prophet [[Muhammad]], played a major role in [[History of Islam|early Islamic history]]. During his reign as caliph, he was known for ordering the official compilation of the standardized version of the [[Quran]], known as [[Uthman's Quran]], that is still being used today.

Before his predecessor, Caliph [[Umar]] ({{Reign|634|644}}), died in office, he appointed a committee of trustees to elect a successor. Uthman, who was then aged 68–71 years, was elected to succeed him and became the oldest person to hold such a high position. During his premiership, the Caliphate expanded further into [[Persia]] in 650 and reached as far as the provinces of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] in 651. Uthman instituted [[Centralized government|centralized reforms]] in order to create a more cohesive administrative structure and fostered rapid [[economic growth]].

However, the last years of his reign were marked by discontent that eventually evolved into an [[First Fitna|armed revolt]], leading to a [[Assassination of Uthman|siege upon his residence]] and ultimately culminating in his assassination. [[Sunni Muslim]] tradition considers him the third [[Rashidun caliph|rightly-guided caliph]].

== Family and early life ==
{{Main|Family tree of Uthman}}

Uthman was born in the [[Hejaz]]. The exact date is disputed; both 573 and 576 are indicated.<ref name="Saad3">Muhammad ibn Saad, ''Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir Volume 3'', translated by Bewley, A.; (2013), ''The Companions of Badr'', London, TaHa Publishers.</ref> He was born to an affluent family of the noble [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyad]] clan. His father, [[Affan ibn Abi al-As]] was of the Umayyad, and his mother, [[Arwa bint Kurayz]] was of the [[Banu Abd Shams|Abdshams]], which were both powerful and wealthy clans in [[Mecca]]. Uthman had one sister, Amina.

Uthman is related to Muhammad through his mother, who was the first cousin of Muhammad and made Uthman his first cousin's son.

His father died at a young age while on a [[Caravan (travellers)|caravan travel]], leaving Uthman with a large inheritance. He brilliantly invested the wealth in trade and became a highly successful merchant, making him one the wealthiest people of the [[Quraysh]].<ref name="Nectar">{{Citation |last=Al-Mubarakphuri |first=Safi-ur-Rahman |title=Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum |trans-title=The Sealed Nectar |place=[[Riyadh]] |publisher=[[Darussalam Publishers]] |date=1996}}.</ref>

== Companionship of Muhammad ==
=== Conversion to Islam ===
On returning from a business trip to [[Syria (region)|Syria]] in 611, Uthman learned of Muhammad's declared mission. After a discussion with [[Abu Bakr]], Uthman decided to convert to Islam, and Abu Bakr brought him to Muhammad to declare his faith. Uthman thus became [[Early Muslims|one of the earliest converts to Islam]], following [[Ali]], [[Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi|Zayd ibn Haritha]], [[Abu Bakr]] and a few others. His conversion to Islam angered his uncle, [[Al-Hakam ibn Abi al-As|Hakam ibn Abi Al-As]], who strongly opposed Muhammad's teachings.<ref name="Basit">{{Cite book |last=Ahmad |first=Abdul Basil |url=https://archive.org/details/uthman-bin-affan_202401/mode/1up |title=Uthman Bin Affan |page=19 |language=en}}</ref> He is listed as one of the twenty two Meccans at the dawn of Islam who knew how to write.<ref>Ahmed ibn Jabir al-Baladhuri. ''Kitab Futuh al-Buldan'', translated by Murgotten, F. C.; (1924), ''The Origins of the Islamic State Part 2'', p. 271, New York, Longmans, Green & Co., and London, P. S. King & Son, Ltd.</ref>

=== Migration to Abyssinia ===
Uthman and his wife, [[Ruqayya bint Muhammad|Ruqayya]], migrated to [[Abyssinia]] (modern Ethiopia) in April 615, along with ten Muslim men and three women. Scores of Muslims joined them later.<ref name="Ishaq">Muhammad ibn Ishaq, ''Sirat Rasul Allah'', translated by Guillaume, A.; (1955), ''The Life of Muhammad'', pp. 146–148, Oxford, [[Oxford University Press]].</ref><ref name="Saad1">Muhammad ibn Saad, ''Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir'', translated by Haq, S. M. (1967), ''Ibn Sa'd's Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, Volume I, Parts I & II'', Delhi, Kitab Bhavan.</ref>{{rp|235–236}} As Uthman already had some business contacts in Abyssinia, he continued to practice his profession as a trader and he continued to flourish.<ref name="ReferenceC">''Hazrat Usman'' – by Rafi Ahmad Fidai, publisher: Islamic Book Service, page: 32</ref>

After four years, the news spread among the Muslims in Abyssinia that the Quraysh of Mecca had accepted Islam, and this acceptance persuaded Uthman, Ruqayya and 39 Muslims to return. However, when they reached Mecca, they found that the news about the Quraysh's acceptance of Islam was false. Nevertheless, Uthman and Ruqayya re-settled in Mecca.<ref name="Ishaq"/>{{rp|167–169}}<ref name="Saad1"/>{{rp|238}} Uthman had to start his business afresh, but the contacts that he had already established in Abyssinia worked in his favour and his business prospered once again.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

=== Migration to Medina ===
In 622, Uthman and his wife, Ruqayya, were among the third group of Muslims to migrate to [[Medina]]. Upon arrival, Uthman stayed with Abu Talha ibn Thabit before moving into the house he purchased a short time later. Uthman was one of the richest merchants of Mecca, with no need of financial help from his [[Ansari (nesbat)|Ansari]] brothers, as he had brought the considerable fortune he had amassed with him to Medina. Most Muslims of Medina were farmers with little interest in trade, and [[Jews]] had conducted most trading in the town. Uthman realised there was a considerable commercial opportunity to promote trade among Muslims and soon established himself as a trader in Medina. With hard work and honesty, his business flourished, making him one of the richest men in Medina.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islam4theworld.com/Sahabah/talhah_bn_ubaydullah_R.htm |title=Talhah bin Ubaydullah |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060601032606/http://www.islam4theworld.com/Sahabah/talhah_bn_ubaydullah_R.htm |archive-date=1 June 2006}}</ref> Two of Uthman's wives having been elder daughters of Muhammad and [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid]], which earned him the honorific title ''Dhū al-Nurayn'' ("The Possessor of Two Lights").<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |date=2009 |title=Uthmān ibn Affān |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e1089 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190919043355/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e1089 |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 September 2019 |last=Asma Afsaruddin |first=Oliver |editor=John L. Esposito |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2023 |title=Uthman ibn Affan - Biography, Achievements & Assassination |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Uthman-ibn-Affan}}</ref>

Across the Muslim world, Uthman is known by his honorific title "Ghani" that translates to "exceedingly generous" which was bestowed upon him for his remarkable donations towards helping those in need and for the cause of Islam.

=== Life in Medina ===
When [[Ali]] married [[Fatima]], Uthman bought Ali's shield for five hundred [[dirhams]]. Four hundred was set aside as ''[[mahr]]'' ([[dower]]) for Fatima's marriage, leaving a hundred for all other expenses. Later, Uthman presented the armour back to Ali as a wedding present.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Heirs Of The Prophet Muhammad - And The Roots Of The Sunni–Shia Schism |first=Barnaby |last=Rogerson |author-link=Barnaby Rogerson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ExbdVf5fFmUC&pg=PT26 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918212902/https://books.google.com/books?id=ExbdVf5fFmUC&pg=PT26 |archive-date=18 September 2015 |isbn=9780748124701 |date=4 November 2010 |publisher=Little, Brown Book}}</ref><ref>''A Chronology Of Islamic History 570–1000 CE'', by H.U. Rahman, 1999, pp. 48, 52–53</ref>

=== Battles ===
{{Main|List of expeditions of Muhammad}}

Uthman participated in all major battles which took place in the early period of Islam except for [[Battle of Badr|Badr]] and that too because the Prophet of Islam commanded him to stay back and tend to his wife who was unwell at the time.<ref>Nisa' Ahl al-Bayt by Ahmad Khaleel Jumu'ah, pp. 491-504</ref> Regarding this, there is a hadith which states, "You (Uthman) will have the reward and the share of booty of a man who was present at Badr".<ref>al-Bukhari, no. 3698 at-Tirmidhi 3706</ref>

Furthermore, during the campaigns of Ghatafan and Dhat al-Riqa the Prophet of Islam left Uthman in charge of Madinah when the Muslim army ventured out of the city.<ref>al-Rawd al-Anf, 3/137; al-Tabaqit by Ibn Sa'd, 2/34, 35</ref>

=== Muhammad's last years ===
{{Main|The event of Ghadir Khumm}}

In 632, the year Muhammad died, Uthman participated in the [[Farewell Pilgrimage]].<ref name="Nectar" /> Uthman was also present at [[the event of Ghadir Khumm]], where, according to [[Shia Islam|Shia]] sources, he was among those who pledged allegiance to [[Ali]].<ref>{{cite web |title=A Shi'ite Encyclopedia |url=https://www.al-islam.org/shiite-encyclopedia-ahlul-bayt-dilp-team |website=al-islam.org |date=12 November 2013 |publisher=Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal |volume=4 |page=281}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=al-Razi |first1=Fakhr |title=Tafsir al-Kabir, Volume 12 |pages=49–50}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=al-Tabrizi |first1=al-Khatib |title=Mishkat al-Masabih |page=557}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Khand |first1=Mir |title=Habib al-Siyar |volume=1, part 3 |page=144}}</ref>

== Caliph Abu Bakr's era (632–634) ==
Uthman had a very close relationship with Abu Bakr, as it was due to him that Uthman had converted to Islam. When Abu Bakr was selected as the caliph, Uthman was the first person after [[Umar]] to offer his allegiance. During the [[Ridda wars]] (Wars of Apostasy), Uthman remained in Medina, acting as Abu Bakr's adviser. On his deathbed, Abu Bakr dictated his will to Uthman, saying that his successor was to be Umar.<ref name="Donner">''The Early Islamic Conquests'', [[Fred Donner]], Princeton, 1981.</ref>

== Election of Uthman ==
{{Main|Election of Uthman}}
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2013}}
<!-- Commented out: [[File:Galexa20 Osman Hagia Sophia.jpg|thumb|[[Hagia Sophia]], [[Istanbul]], Calligraphy of Uthman]] -->

Umar, on his deathbed, formed a committee of six people, all from the [[Muhajirun]] (early [[Mecca|Meccan]] converts), to choose the next caliph from amongst themselves.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jafri |first=S.H.M |url=https://archive.org/details/OriginsAndEarlyDevelopmentOfShiaIslamBySyedHusainMohammadJafri/mode/2up |title=Origins and Early Development of Shia Islam |date=1979 |language=en}}</ref> This committee was:
* [[Ali]]
* Uthman
* [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf]]
* [[Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas]]
* [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam]]
* [[Talha ibn Ubayd Allah]]

According to [[Tarikh al-Yaqubi|Yaqoubi history]], Umar appointed [[Abu Talha al-Ansari|Abu Talha Ansari]] to this task and said: If four people gave an opinion and two disagreed, behead those two, and if three agreed and three disagreed, the three people whom Abd al-Rahman is not among them, behead them, and if three days passed and they didn't reach an agreement on anyone, behead them all".<ref>Yaqubi history, vol. 2, p. 160.</ref><ref>Translation of Tarikh Yaqoubi, vol. 2, p. 50</ref><ref>look at al-Tanbīh wa-al-ishrāf by al-Masudi page 267</ref>

Yaqoubi further adds that many negotiations took place in these three days and the result was hesitant between Ali and Uthman. Abd al-Rahman asked Ali: If we pledge allegiance to you, would you be willing to follow the Book of God (Quran) and the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah and behave in the manner of the two previous caliphs (Umar and Abu Bakr)? Ali's answer to Abd al-Rahman was: I will only follow the Book of God and the Sunnah of the Messenger of God. Abd al-Rahman asked the same question to Uthman and Uthman answered positively and accepted all the conditions and therefore he became the caliph.<ref>Translation of Tarikh Yaqoubi, vol. 2, p. 53</ref>

== Caliphate ==
In about 650, Uthman began noticing slight differences in recitations of the [[Quran]] as Islam expanded beyond the [[Arabian Peninsula]] into [[Persia]], the [[Levant]], and [[North Africa]]. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by [[Zayd ibn Thabit]] to use caliph [[Abu Bakr]]'s copy and prepare a standardised version of the Quran.<ref name="tabatabai5">{{cite book |last=Tabatabai |first=Sayyid M. H. |title=The Qur'an in Islam - its impact and influence on the life of Muslims |date=1987 |publisher=Zahra Publ. |isbn=978-0710302663 |url=https://archive.org/details/quraninislamitsi0000taba |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="sbukhari1">{{cite web |last=al-Bukhari |first=Muhammad |title=Sahih Bukhari, volume 6, book 61, narrations number 509 and 510 |website=sahih-bukhari.com |url=http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_6_61.php |date=810–870 |access-date=16 February 2018}}</ref> Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death, the Quran was committed to written form. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, with the other versions ordered to be burnt by Uthman.<ref name="tabatabai5"/><ref name="rippin">{{cite book |title=The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an |last=Rippin, Andrew |publisher=Blackwell |date=2006 |isbn=978140511752-4 |edition=[2a reimpr.] |display-authors=etal |url=https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00ripp_0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Mohamad K. |last=Yusuff |title=Zayd ibn Thabit and the Glorious Qur'an |url=http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_251_300/zayd_ibn_thabit_and_the_glorious.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Koran - A Very Short Introduction |first=Michael |last=Cook |date=2000 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=117–124 |isbn=0-19-285344-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/koranveryshorti00cook/page/117}}</ref>

While the Shī'ah use the same [[Qur'an]] as Sunni Muslims, they do not believe that it was first compiled by Uthman.<ref name="Shirazi04">{{cite book |last=Shirazi |first=Muhammad |title=The Qur'an made simple |date=2004 |publisher=Fountain Books |location=London |volume=10 |pages=xxiv}}</ref> Rather, the Shī'ah believe that the Qur'an was gathered and compiled by [[Muhammad]] during his lifetime.<ref name="Shirazi01">{{cite book |last=Shirazi |first=Muhammad |title=The Qur'an – When was it compiled? |date=2001 |publisher=Fountain Books |location=London |pages=5, 7}}</ref><ref name="Shirazi02">{{cite book |last=Shirazi |first=Muhammad |title=The Qur'an made simple |date=2004 |publisher=Fountain Books |location=London |volume=10 |pages=xxi, xxiv, xxv}}</ref><ref name="Shirazi03">{{cite book |last=Shirazi |first=Muhammad |title=The Shi'a and their Beliefs |date=2008 |publisher=Fountain Books |location=London |page=29}}</ref>

=== Economic and social administration ===
[[File:First Islamic coins by caliph Uthman-mohammad adil rais.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Arab-Sasanian coinage]] during Uthman used [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid]] symbols ([[star and crescent]], [[fire temple]], the picture of the last emperor [[Khosrau II]]) by adding [[Basmala|Bismillah]] in [[Arabic script|Arabic]] on margin, instead of designing a new one.<ref>As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the drahms of the Sasanian-style, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions like besmellāh in the margins.https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-</ref>]]

Uthman was a businessman and a successful trader from his youth, which contributed greatly to the Rashidun Caliphate. Umar had established a public [[allowance (money)|allowance]] and, on assuming office, Uthman increased it by about 25%. Umar had placed a ban on the sale of lands and the purchase of [[Agriculture|agricultural]] lands in conquered territories.<ref name="Al-Islam">''A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims'' on [http://al-islam.org/restatement/57.htm Al-Islam.org] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004125034/http://al-islam.org/restatement/57.htm |date=4 October 2006}} referencing ''[[Al-Fitna Al-Kubra]]'' (''The Great Upheaval''), published by Dar-ul-Ma'arif, Cairo, 1959, p. 47</ref> Uthman withdrew these restrictions, as the trade could not flourish. Uthman also permitted people to draw loans from the public treasury. Under Umar, it had been laid down as a policy that the lands in conquered territories were not to be distributed among the combatants but were to remain the property of the previous owners. The army felt dissatisfied at this decision, but Umar suppressed the opposition with a strong hand. Uthman followed the policy devised by Umar and there were more conquests, and the revenues from land increased considerably.<ref name="Donner" />

Umar had been very strict in the use of money from the public treasury—indeed, apart from the meagre allowance that had been sanctioned in his favour, Umar took no money from the treasury. He did not receive any gifts, nor did he allow any of his family members to accept any gifts from any quarter. During the time of Uthman, these restrictions were relaxed. Although Uthman still drew no personal allowance from the treasury, nor did he receive a [[salary]], as he was a wealthy man with sufficient resources of his own, but, unlike Umar, Uthman accepted gifts and allowed his family members to do likewise from certain quarters.<ref name="Nectar" /> Uthman honestly expressed that he had the right to utilize the public funds according to his best judgment, and no one criticized him for that. The economic reforms introduced by Uthman had far-reaching effects; Muslims, as well as non-Muslims of the Rashidun Caliphate, enjoyed an economically prosperous life during his reign.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/coinsm1.htm |title=The Gold Coins of Muslim Rulers |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070722080357/http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/coinsm1.htm |archive-date=22 July 2007}}</ref>

=== Military expansion ===
{{Campaignbox Early Muslim Expansions}}
{{Campaignbox Arab–Byzantine Wars}}
{{Campaignbox Muslim Conquest Persia}}
{{Main|Military campaigns under Caliph Uthman}}
[[File:Mohammad adil rais-rashidun empire-at-its peak.PNG|thumb|Rashidun Caliphate at its peak under Uthman (654)]]

During his rule, Uthman's military-style was more autonomical in nature as he delegated much military authority to his trusted kinsmen – e.g., [[Abd Allah ibn Amir]], [[Mu'awiya I]] and [[Abd Allah ibn Sa'd]] – unlike [[Umar]]'s more centralized policy. Consequently, this more independent policy allowed more expansion until [[Sindh]], in modern Pakistan, which had not been touched during the tenure of Umar.<ref name="Tabri">''History of the Prophets and Kings'', (''Tarikh al-Tabari''), vol. 4, ''The Ancient Kingdoms'', p. 183.</ref> The conquest of Armenia had begun by the 640s.<ref name="middle east">{{cite book |last1=Ochsenweld |first1=William |title=The Middle East - A History |last2=Fisher |first2=Sydney Nettleton |publisher=[[McGraw Hill Education|McGraw Hill]] |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-07-244233-5 |edition=6th |location=New York |author-link2=Sydney Nettleton Fisher}}</ref>

[[Muawiyah I|Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan]] had been appointed the governor of Syria by [[Umar]] in 639 to stop Byzantine harassment from the sea during the [[Arab-Byzantine Wars]]. He succeeded his elder brother [[Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan]], who died in a plague, along with [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah]], the governor before him, and 25,000 other people. Now under Uthman's rule in 649, Muawiyah was allowed to set up a navy, manned by [[Monophysitism|Monophysitic Christians]], [[Copts]], and [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church|Jacobite Syrian Christian]] sailors and Muslim troops, which defeated the Byzantine navy at the [[Battle of the Masts]] in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OzIRDbARyWIC&q=Muawiyah%20set%20up%20navy&pg=PA24 |title=European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500 |first1=Archibald Ross |last1=Lewis |first2=Timothy J. |last2=Runyan |date=1990 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |via=Google Books |isbn=9780253205735}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aAPc3mYwZpIC&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&pg=PA123 |title=History of the Jihad - Islam Versus Civilisation |first=Leonard Michael |last=Kroll |date=16 March 2005 |publisher=[[AuthorHouse]] |via=Google Books |isbn=9781463457303}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIFJiOCSYc8C&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&pg=PA183 |title=A History of Byzantium |first=Timothy E. |last=Gregory |date=26 August 2011 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons]] |via=Google Books |isbn=9781444359978}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&pg=PA61 |title=Prophets and Princes - Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present |first=Mark |last=Weston |date=28 July 2008 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons]] |via=Google Books |isbn=9780470182574}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fKFRvUiLEQYC&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&pg=PA11|title=The Medieval Siege|first=Jim |last=Bradbury |date=1992 |publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer]] |via=Google Books |isbn=9780851153575}}</ref>

In [[Hijri year]] 15 ({{circa|647}}), Uthman sent [[Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr]] and [[Abd Allah ibn Sa'd]] to [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb#First invasion|reconquer the Maghreb]], where he met the army of [[Gregory the Patrician]], [[Exarch of Africa]] and relative of [[Heraclius]], which is recorded to have numbered between 120,000 and 200,000 soldiers,<ref name="Google474iHr4bQJUC">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=474iHr4bQJUC&q=abdullah+ibn+aamir+khurasan&pg=PA64 |date=1990 |title=Kisah Hidup Utsman ibn Affan citing Tarikh at Thabari and al Bidayah wal Nihayah (71/158) |page=64 |isbn=978-9790241374 |last1=Murrad |first1=Mustafa |publisher=Serambi Ilmu Semesta}}</ref> The opposing forces clashed at Sabuthilag (or [[Battle of Sufetula (647)|Sufetula]]), which became the name of this battle. Records from [[Al-Bidaya wa l-Nihaya|al-Bidayah wal Nihayah]] state that Abdullah's troops were completely surrounded by Gregory's army. However, [[Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr]] spotted Gregory in his chariot and asked [[Abd Allah ibn Sa'd]] to lead a small detachment to intercept him. The interception was successful, and Gregory was slain by Zubayr's ambush party. Consequently, the morale of Byzantine army started crumbling and soon they were routed.<ref name="Google474iHr4bQJUC" />

Some Muslim sources ([[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]]<ref>See: ''[[History of the Prophets and Kings]]'' (''Tarikh al-Tabari)''</ref>) claim that after the conquest of northern Africa was completed, Abd Allah ibn Sa'd continued to Spain. Other prominent Muslim [[historian]]s, like [[Ibn Kathir]],<ref>See: ''[[Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah]]'' (''Tarikh ibn Kathir'')</ref> have quoted the same narration. In the description of this campaign, two of Abd Allah ibn Sa 'd's generals, Abdullah ibn Nafiah ibn Husain and Abdullah ibn Nafi ibn Abdul Qais, were ordered to invade the coastal areas of Spain by sea, aided by a Berber force. They allegedly succeeded in conquering the coastal areas of [[Al-Andalus]]. It is not known where the Muslim force landed, what resistance they met, and what parts of Spain they actually conquered. However, it is clear that the Muslims did conquer some portion of Spain during the caliphate of Uthman, presumably establishing colonies on its coast. On this occasion, Uthman is reported to have addressed a letter to the invading force:

{{cquote|[[Constantinople]] will be conquered from the side of Al-Andalus. Thus, if you conquer it, you will have the honor of taking the first step towards the conquest of Constantinople. You will have your reward in this behalf both in this world and the next.}}

Although raids by Berbers and Muslims were conducted against the [[Visigothic Kingdom]] in Spain during the late 7th century, there is no evidence that Spain was invaded nor that parts of it were conquered or settled by Muslims prior to the 711 campaign by [[Tariq ibn Ziyad|Tariq]].

Abd Allah ibn Sa'd also achieved success in the Caliphate's first decisive naval battle against the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[Battle of the Masts]].<ref>''Ridpath's Universal History'', Merrill & Baker, Vol. 12, New York, p. 483.</ref>

To the east, [[Ahnaf ibn Qais]], chief of [[Banu Tamim]] and a veteran commander who conquered [[Shustar]] earlier, launched a series of further military expansions by [[Battle of Oxus River|further mauling Yazdegerd III]] near [[Oxus River]] in [[Turkmenistan]]<ref name="ReferenceB">''The Muslim Conquest of Persia'' by A.I. Akram, Chapter 17 {{ISBN|0-19-597713-0}},</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Shadows in the Desert - Ancient Persia at War, by Kaveh Farrokh, published by [[Osprey Publishing]], 2007 {{ISBN|1-84603-108-7}}</ref> and later crushing a military coalition of [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] loyalists and [[Hephthalite Empire]] in the [[Siege of Herat (652)|Siege of Herat]].<ref name="ReferenceB" /> Later, the governor of [[Basra]], [[Abdullah ibn Aamir]] also led a number of successful campaigns, ranging from the suppression of revolts in [[Fars province|Fars]], [[Kerman]], [[Sistan]], and [[Khorasan province|Khorasan]], to the opening of new fronts for conquest in [[Transoxiana]] and Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uhjSiRAwGuEC&q=abdullah%20ibn%20aamir%20persia%20conquest&pg=PA207 |title=Iraq After the Muslim Conquest |first=Michael G. |last=Morony |date=2005 |publisher=[[Gorgias Press]] |via=Google Books |isbn=9781593333157}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

In the next year, in 652, [[Futuh al-Buldan]] of Baladhuri writes that [[Balochistan]] was re-conquered during the campaign against the revolt in Kermān, under the command of Majasha ibn Mas'ud. It was the first time that western Balochistan had come directly under the laws of the Caliphate and it paid an agricultural tribute.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC&q=kirman+mas%27ud&pg=PA117 |last=Boyle |first=John Andrew |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=5 |page=117 |date=1968 |isbn=9780521069366}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VINCAAAAYAAJ&q=Majasha+ibn+Masood |last=Daryaee |first=Touraj |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=[[Bookland]] |page=117 |date=1977}}</ref>

The military campaigns under Uthman's rule were generally successful, except for a few in the [[Nubia]], on the lower Nile.

=== Public opposition to Uthman's policies ===
==== Reasons for the opposition ====
Noting an increase in anti-government tension around the Caliphate, Uthman's administration decided to determine its origins, extent, and aims. Some time around 654, Uthman called all twelve provincial governors to Medina to discuss the problem. During this Council of Governors, Uthman ordered that all resolutions of the council be adopted according to local circumstances. Later, in the Majlis al Shurah (council of ministers), it was suggested to Uthman that reliable agents be sent to various provinces to attempt to determine the source of the discontent. Uthman accordingly sent [[Muhammad ibn Maslamah]] to [[Kufa]], [[Usama ibn Zayd]] to [[Basra]], [[Ammar ibn Yasir]] to Egypt, and [[Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab|Abd Allah ibn Umar]] to Syria. The agents sent to Kufa, Basra and Syria reported that all was well – the people were generally satisfied with the administration, although some individuals had minor personal grievances. Ammar ibn Yasir, the emissary to Egypt, however, did not return to Medina. Rebels there had been issuing propaganda in favour of making Ali caliph. Ammar ibn Yasir, who had been affiliated with Ali, abandoned Uthman for the Egyptian opposition. Abd Allah ibn Sa'd, the governor of Egypt, reported about the opposition's activities instead. He wanted to take action against Ali's foster son, [[Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr]], [[Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa]], Uthman's adopted son, and Ammar ibn Yasir.<ref name="CHI">''The Cambridge History of Islam'', ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and [[Bernard Lewis]], Cambridge, 1970</ref>

==== Uthman's attempts to appease the dissidents ====
In 655, Uthman directed those with any grievance against the administration, as well as the governors and "Amils" throughout the caliphate, to assemble at Mecca for the Hajj, promising that all legitimate grievances would be redressed. Accordingly, large delegations from various cities came to present their grievances before the gathering.<ref name="Aadil">''Sirat-i-Hazrat Usman-i-Ghani'', by Mohammad Alias Aadil, publishers: Mushtaq Ahmed Lahore</ref>

The rebels realised that the people in Mecca supported Uthman and were not inclined to listen to them.<ref name="Basit" /> This represented a great psychological victory for Uthman. It is said, according to Sunni Muslim accounts, that before returning to Syria, the governor [[Muawiyah I|Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan]], Uthman's cousin, suggested that Uthman should come with him to Syria as the atmosphere there was peaceful. Uthman rejected his offer, saying that he did not want to leave the city of Muhammad (''viz.'', Medina). Muawiyah then suggested that he be allowed to send a strong force from Syria to Medina to guard Uthman against any possible attempt by rebels to harm him. Uthman rejected it too, saying that the Syrian forces in Medina would be an incitement to [[civil war]], and he could not be party to such a move.<ref name="CHI" />

== Revolt against Uthman ==
The politics of Egypt played the major role in the propaganda war against the caliphate, so Uthman summoned Abdullah ibn Saad, the governor of Egypt, to Medina to consult with him as to the course of action that should be adopted. Abd Allah ibn Sa'd came to Medina, leaving the affairs of Egypt to his deputy, and in his absence, [[Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa]] staged a [[coup d'état]] and took power. On hearing of the revolt in Egypt, Abd Allah hastened back, but Uthman was not in a position to offer him any military assistance, and so Abd Allah was unable to suppress the revolt.<ref>Abu Nu'aym, Hilya al-Awliya' 1:92–100 #3; al-Dhahabi, Siyar A'lam al-Nubala' 1/2: 566–614 #4.</ref>

Several Sunni scholars, such as [[Ibn Qutaybah]], Ali Ibn Burhanuddin al-Halabi, Ibne Abi-al-Hadeed and Ibne Manzur, reported that there were several leading [[Sahaba]] among those who called upon Uthman to step down for reasons such as nepotism and profligacy.

=== Rebels in Medina ===
From Egypt, Kufa, and Basra, contingents of about 1,000 people apiece were sent to Medina, each with instructions to assassinate Uthman and overthrow the government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sunnah.org/publication/khulafa_rashideen/caliph3.htm |title=Uthman ibn Affan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929091309/http://sunnah.org/publication/khulafa_rashideen/caliph3.htm |archive-date=29 September 2007}}</ref> Representatives of the Egyptian contingent waited on Ali and offered him the Caliphate, but he turned them down. Representatives of the contingent from Kufa waited on Al-Zubayr, and those from Basra waited on [[Talhah|Talha]], each offering them their allegiance as the next Caliph, but both were similarly turned down. By proposing alternatives to Uthman as Caliph, the rebels swayed public opinion in Medina to the point where Uthman's faction could no longer offer a united front. Uthman had the active support of the Umayyads and a few other people in Medina.<ref name="Gabrieli">''Muhammad and the Conquests of Islam'', Francesco Gabrieli, London, 1968</ref>

=== Siege of Uthman ===
The early stage of the siege of Uthman's house was not severe, but, as the days passed, the rebels intensified the pressure against Uthman.<ref name="Hinds">"The Murder of the Caliph Uthman," M. Hinds, in ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'', 1972</ref> With the departure of the pilgrims from Medina to Mecca, the rebel position was strengthened further, and as a consequence the crisis deepened. The rebels understood that, after the Hajj, the Muslims, gathered at Mecca from all parts of the [[Muslim world]], might march to Medina to relieve Uthman. They therefore decided to take action against Uthman before the pilgrimage was over. During the siege, Uthman was asked by his supporters, who outnumbered the rebels, to let them fight, but Uthman refused in an effort to avoid bloodshed among Muslims. Unfortunately for Uthman, violence still occurred. The gates of the house of Uthman were shut and guarded by the warrior Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr,<ref name="Hinds" /> along with Ali's sons, [[Hasan ibn Ali]] and [[Husayn ibn Ali]].<ref>''Prophets and Princes - Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present'', p. 63, by Mark Weston</ref><ref>Al Nahaya, Volume 5, page 80; Qamus, page 500; "lughut Nathal" by Firozabadi; Lisan al Arab, Volume 11 Chapter "Lughuth Nathal" page 670; Sharh Nahjul Balagha Ibn al Hadeed Volume 2 page 122; Sheikh al-Mudhira, by Mahmoud Abu Raya, p. 170 (foot note); Al-Imama wa al-Siyasa, Volume 1 page 52; Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Duwal, by Ibn Al-Ebrei, vol. 1, p. 55; Al-Mahsol, by al-Razi, v. 4 p. 343; Ansab al-Ashraf, Volume 6 pages 192–193, Tarikh e Tibri by Tibri, v. 8 p. 343.</ref>

=== Causes of anti-Uthman revolt ===
{{Main|Abd Allah ibn Saba'}}

The actual reason for the anti-Uthman movement is disputed among the Shia and Sunni Muslims.<ref name="Gabrieli" />  Under Uthman, the people became more prosperous and on the [[Politics|political]] plane, they came to enjoy a larger degree of freedom. No institutions were devised to channel political activity, and, in their absence, the [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic]] tribal jealousies and rivalries, which had been suppressed under earlier caliphs, erupted once again. The people took advantage of Uthman's leniency, which became a headache for the state, culminating in Uthman's assassination.<ref name="Aadil" />

According to [[Wilferd Madelung]], during Uthman's reign, "grievances against his arbitrary acts were substantial by standards of his time. Historical sources mention a lengthy account of the wrongdoings he was accused of... It was only his violent death that came to absolve him in Sunni ideology from any ''ahdath'' and make him a martyr and the third Rightly Guided Caliph".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilfred |title=The Succession to Muhammad |title-link=The Succession to Muhammad |page=78}}</ref> According to Heather Keaney, Uthman, as a caliph, relied solely on his own volition in picking his cabinet, which led to decisions that bred resistance within the Muslim community. Indeed, his style of governance made Uthman one of the most controversial figures in Islamic history.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keaney |first1=Heather |date=2011 |title=Confronting the Caliph - Uthmân b. Affân in Three Abbasid Chronicles |journal=[[Studia Islamica]] |volume=106 |issue=1 |doi=10.1163/19585705-12341251 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The resistance against Uthman arose because he favoured family members when choosing governors, reasoning that, by doing this, he would be able to exact more influence on how the caliphate was run and consequently improve the feudal system he worked to establish. The contrary turned out to be true and his appointees had more control over how he conducted business than he had originally planned.<ref name="EI2">{{Cite encyclopedia |date=2012 |title=Ut̲h̲mān b. Affān |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |editor=P. Bearman |edition=2nd |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1315 |author2=R.G. Khoury |author1=G. Levi Della Vida |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs}}</ref> They went so far as to impose authoritarianism over their provinces. Indeed, many anonymous letters were written to the leading companions of Muhammad, complaining about the alleged tyranny of Uthman's appointed governors. Moreover, letters were sent to the leaders of public opinion in different provinces concerning the reported mishandling of power by Uthman's family. This contributed to unrest in the empire and finally Uthman had to investigate the matter in an attempt to ascertain the authenticity of the rumours.<ref>''A Chronology of Islamic History, 570–1000 CE'' by Habibur U. Rahman. {{ISBN|978-0-8161-9067-6}}</ref> [[Wilferd Madelung]] discredits the alleged role of [[Abd Allah ibn Saba'|Abdullah ibn Saba]] in the rebellion against Uthman and observes that ''few if any modern historians would accept Sayf's legend of Ibn Saba''.<ref>''The Succession to Muhammad'', p. 2</ref>

[[Bernard Lewis]], a 20th-century [[scholar]], says of Uthman:
{{blockquote|''Uthman'', like [[Mu'awiya I]], was a member of the leading [[Mecca]]n [[Umayyad|family of Ummaya]] and was indeed the sole representative of the Meccan patricians among the [[Sahabah|early companions]] of the Prophet with sufficient prestige to rank as a candidate. His election was at once their victory and their opportunity. That opportunity was not neglected. Uthman soon fell under the influence of the dominant Meccan families and one after another, the high posts of the Empire went to members of those families.<br /><br />The weakness and nepotism of Uthman brought to a head the resentment which had for some time been stirring obscurely among the Arab warriors. The Muslim tradition attribute the breakdown which occurred during his reign to the personal defects of Uthman. But, the causes lie far deeper and the guilt of Uthman lay in his failure to recognize, control or remedy them.<ref>''[[The Arabs in History]]'', p. 59, [[Oxford University Press]], 2002</ref>}}

== Assassination ==
{{Main|Assassination of Uthman}}

On 17 June 656, rebels found the gate of Uthman's house strongly guarded by his supporters. Some of the rebels scaled the neighboring houses and jumped into Uthman's. Then one rebel approached Uthman, grabbed and shook his beard. Uthman prayed to God for protection from killing, the rebel stabbed him in the head, and the other rebels followed suit.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=139 n.}}{{sfn|Humphreys|1990|p=190–191}}

According to a narration regarded as likely to be a [[legend]] by [[Wilferd Madelung|Madelung]],{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=139 n.}} Uthman's wives threw themselves on his body to shield him. [[Na'ila bint al-Furafisa]], one of his wives, extended her hand to block a blade. Her fingers were severed, and she was shoved aside. The following strike killed Uthman. A few of Uthman's slaves retaliated, and one of them succeeded in killing one of the assassins before being murdered by the rebels.{{sfn|Humphreys|1990|p=216, 248}}

=== Funeral ===
[[File:Baqi Othman.jpg|thumb|Uthman's tomb after [[Demolition of al-Baqi|demolition by Saudi Arabia]]]]

After the body of Uthman had been in the house for three days, Na'ila approached some of his supporters to assist in his burial, but only about a dozen people responded, including [[Marwan I|Marwan]], [[Zayd ibn Thabit]], Huwatib bin Alfarah, [[Jubayr ibn Mut'im]], Abu Jahm bin Hudaifa, Hakim bin Hazam and Niyar bin Mukarram.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.islamicgoodsdirect.co.uk/product_info.php/products_id/1427 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928200549/http://www.islamicgoodsdirect.co.uk/product_info.php/products_id/1427 |url-status=dead |title=Hazrat Usman |archive-date=28 September 2007}}</ref> The body was lifted at dusk, and because of the blockade, no coffin could be procured. The body was not washed. Thus, Uthman was carried to the graveyard in the clothes that he was wearing at the time of his assassination.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.writerinislam.blogspot.com/2005/11/uthman-ibn-affan-man-with-two-lights.html |title=Uthman ibn Affan - The Man With Two Lights (Part Two) |first=Amatullah |last=A. |date=29 November 2005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109144132/http://www.writerinislam.blogspot.com/2005/11/uthman-ibn-affan-man-with-two-lights.html |archive-date=9 November 2007}}</ref>

Na'ila followed the funeral with a lamp, but, in order to maintain secrecy, the lamp had to be extinguished. Na'ila was accompanied by some women, including Uthman's daughter.<ref name="Tabari15">Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, ''Tarikh al-Rasul wa'l-Muluk'', translated by Humphreys, R. S. (1990), ''Volume 15 - The Crisis of the Early Caliphate'', Albany, [[SUNY Press|State University of New York Press]].</ref>{{rp|247, 248}}

=== Burial ===
The body was carried to [[Jannat al-Baqi]] for burial.{{Citation needed|date=July 2013}} Apparently, some people gathered there and resisted Uthman's burial in the Muslim cemetery. Accordingly, Uthman's supporters later buried him in the Jewish graveyard behind [[Al-Baqi Cemetery]]. Some decades later, the Umayyad rulers demolished the wall separating the two cemeteries and merged the Jewish cemetery into the Muslim one to ensure that his tomb was now inside a Muslim cemetery.<ref>''Textual Sources for the Study of Islam'' by Knappert, Jan, Andrew Rippin</ref>{{failed verification|date=July 2018|reason=Uthman's burial, Jannat al-Baqi nor any cemetery is mentioned in this ref}}

The funeral prayers were led by [[Jubayr ibn Mut'im]], and the dead body was lowered into the grave with little ceremony. After burial, Na'ila and A'isha wanted to speak but were discouraged from doing so due to possible danger from the rioters.<ref>''The Encyclopaedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged'' by Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer</ref><ref name="Tabari15" />{{rp|247}}

== Appearance and character ==
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2013}}

The historian [[al-Tabari]] notes that Uthman was of medium height, strong-boned and broad-shouldered and walked in a bowlegged manner.<ref name="TabariHumphreysP252-53">{{cite book |last1=Al-Tabari |first1=Muhammad ibn Jarir |last2=Humphreys |first2=R. Stephen |author-link1=Al-Tabari |author-link2=R. Stephen Humphreys |title=The History of al-Tabari, Volume XV - The Crisis of the Early Caliphate |date=1990 |pages=252–253 |url=https://archive.org/stream/LEKJHFNM/15%20The%20Reign%20Of%20Uthman%20Bin%20Affan%20A.H.%2024-35%20Vol.15#page/n275/mode/2up}}</ref> He is said to have had large limbs, with fleshy shins and long, hairy forearms.<ref name="JubouriP145">{{cite book |last=Al-Jubouri |first=I.M.N. |title=History of Islamic Philosophy - With View of Greek Philosophy and Early History of Islam |date=2004 |page=145 |publisher=Authors On Line |isbn=9780755210114 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3xJjNG5CNdwC&pg=PA145}}</ref> Though commonly described as having been very handsome with a fair complexion,<ref name="TabariHumphreysP252-53" /> when viewed up close, light scars from a childhood bout of [[smallpox]] were said to have been evident on his face.<ref name=BarnabyP236>{{cite book |last=Rogerson |first=Barnaby |author-link=Barnaby Rogerson |title=The Heirs Of The Prophet Muhammad - And the Roots of the Sunni-Shia Schism |date=2006 |page=236}}</ref> He had a full reddish-brown beard to which he applied [[saffron]]<ref name="TabariHumphreysP252-53" /> and thick curly hair which grew past his ears, though receded at the front.<ref name="BarnabyP236" /> His teeth were bound with gold wire,<ref name="BarnabyP236" /> with the front ones being noted as being particularly fine.<ref name="JubouriP145" />

Unlike his predecessor Umar, Uthman was not a skilled orator, having grown tongue-tied during his first address as caliph. He remained somewhat apart from the other close [[Sahaba]], having been an elegant, educated and cultured merchant-prince standing out among his poorer compatriots. This was a trait which had been acknowledged by Muhammad. One story relates that Aisha, having noted that Muhammad reclined comfortably and spoke casually with Abu Bakr and Umar, asked him why when he addressed Uthman, he chose to gather his clothing neatly and assume a formal manner. Muhammad replied that "Uthman is modest and shy and if l had been informal with him, he would not have said what he had come here to say".<ref name="BarnabyP236" />

Uthman was a family man<ref name="EI2" /> who led a simple life even after becoming the caliph, despite the fact that his flourishing family business had made him rich. Prior caliphs had been paid for their services from the bayt al-mal, the public treasury, but the independently wealthy Uthman never took a salary.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmad |first=Abdul Basil |url=https://archive.org/details/uthman-bin-affan_202401/mode/1up |title=Uthman Bin Affan |page=42}}</ref> Uthman was also a humanitarian; he customarily freed slaves every Friday, looked after the [[widow]]s and [[orphan]]s, and gave unlimited charity. His patience and endurance were among the characteristics that made him a successful leader.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} As a way of taking care of Muhammad's wives, he doubled their allowances. Uthman was not completely plain and simple, however, he built a palace for himself in Medina, known as Al-Zawar, with a notable feature being doors of precious wood. Although Uthman paid for the palace with his own money, Shia Muslims considered it his first step towards ruling like a king.<ref name="Nectar" />

It was asked of Uthman why he did not drink wine during the Age of Ignorance, when there was no objection to this practice (before the revelation of Islam). He replied: "I saw that it made the intellect flee in its entirety, and I've never known of something to do this and then return in its entirety."<ref>{{Cite book |title=The ultimate ambition in the arts of erudition - a compendium of knowledge from the classical Islamic world |last=Nuwayrī, Aḥmad ibn Abd al-Wahhāb |editor=Muhanna, Elias |translator=Muhanna |date=2016 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |isbn=9780143107484 |pages=85 |oclc=995783596}}</ref>

== Assessment and legacy ==
Uthman is said to have been the first caliph to adopt the title {{Transliteration|ar|khalifat Allah}} ("deputy of God").{{Sfn|Crone|Hinds|1986|pp=5–6}} The general opinion of the Sunni Muslim community and Sunni historians regarding Uthman's rule were positive, particularly regarding his leniency; in their view, the kinsmen he appointed, such as [[Muawiya]] and [[Abdullah ibn Aamir]], proved to be effective in both military and political management. Historians like Muhammad Zaki accused Uthman of corruption, particularly in the case of [[Waleed ibn Uqba]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=-YanAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA234&dq=uthman+rule+expansion#q=uthman%20rule%20expansion ''History of Muslim Rule – The Prophet and The Early Rulers''] by Dr. Muhammad Zaki, Google Books.</ref>

<blockquote>Perhaps the most significant act of Uthman was allowing Muawiya and Abd Allah ibn Sa'd, governors respectively of Syria and Northern Africa, to form the first integrated Muslim navy in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], rivalling the maritime domination of the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref name="autogenerated6">''A Chronology Of Islamic History 570–1000 CE'', by H.U. Rahman 1999, pages 48–49</ref><ref name="Hugh Kennedy page 326">''The Great Arab Conquests By Hugh Kennedy'', page 326</ref> Ibn Saad's conquest of the southeast coast of Spain, his stunning victory at the [[Battle of the Masts]] in [[Lycia]], and expansion to other coasts of the Mediterranean Sea are generally overlooked. These achievements gave birth to the first Muslim standing navy, thus enabling the first Muslim maritime conquest of [[Cyprus]]<ref name="autogenerated6" /><ref name="Hugh Kennedy page 326" /> and [[Rhodes]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Treadgold |first=Warren |author-link=Warren Treadgold |title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYbnr5XVbzUC |location=Stanford, California |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |date=1997 |isbn=978-0-8047-2630-6 |page=313}}</ref><ref name="WT">Warren Treadgold, ''A history of the Byzantine State and Society'', [[Stanford University Press]], 1997, p. 314 {{ISBN|0-8047-2630-2}}</ref> This subsequently paved the way for the establishment of several Muslim states in the Mediterranean Sea during the later [[Umayyad]] and [[Abbasid]] eras,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cbfORLWv1HkC&pg=PA639 |last1=Khadra Jayyusi |first1=Salma |last2=Marín |first2=Manuela |date=1992 |title=The Legacy of Muslim Spain |page=649 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=978-9004095991}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vJZTAAAAcAAJ&q=uthman+nafi+spain+abdullah+sa%27d&pg=PA383 |author=Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. Muḥammad Maqqarī |date=1848 |title=History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain Oriental translation Fund |page=383}}</ref> which came in the form of the [[Emirate of Sicily]]<ref name="stan">{{cite news |url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/mountpolizzo/HandbookTOC.htm |publisher=Archaeology.Stanford.edu |title=Brief history of Sicily |date=24 November 2008 |format=PDF |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508130031/http://www.stanford.edu/group/mountpolizzo/HandbookTOC.htm |archive-date=8 May 2009}}</ref> and its minor vassal the [[Emirate of Bari]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kreutz |first=Barbara M. |title=Before the Normans - Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries |location=Philadelphia |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |date=1991 |isbn=0-8122-1587-7}}</ref><ref name="kreutz1">Kreutz citation of Baladhuri, 38.</ref> as well as the [[Emirate of Crete]]<ref name="Makrypoulias 2000, pp. 347–348">Makrypoulias (2000), pp. 347–348</ref> and the [[Aghlabids|Aglabid Dynasty]].<ref name="gold79">{{cite book |last=Goldschmidt |first=Arthur |title=A Concise History of the Middle East |date=2002 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |location=Boulder, Colorado |isbn=978-0-8133-3885-9 |page=79 |url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00gold/page/79}}</ref> The significance of Uthman's naval development and its political legacy was agreed upon by Muhammad M.Ag, author of ''Islamic Fiscal and Monetary Policy''<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yyXYAAAAMAAJ&q=khalifah+usman+bizantium |author=Muhammad |publisher=Salemba Empat |orig-date=2002 |date=2009 |title=Kebijakan fiskal dan moneter dalam ekonomi Islami |isbn=9789796911189}}</ref> and further strengthened by Hassan Khalileh referencing ''Tarikh al Bahriyya wal Islamiyya fii Misr wal Sham'' ("History of the Seas and Islam in Egypt and [[Levant]]") by Ahmad Abaddy and Esayyed Salem.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&q=uthman+affan+navy&pg=PA558 |title=Navy |editor-last=Meri |editor-first=Josef |editor2-last=Bacharach |editor2-first=Jere L. |first=Hassan |last=Khalileh |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |date=2006 |page=558 |isbn=978-0-415-96692-4 |encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization - An Encyclopedia (Volume 2)}}</ref></blockquote>

From an expansionist perspective, Uthman is regarded as skilled in conflict management, as is evident from how he dealt with the heated and troubled early Muslim conquered territories, such as Kufa and Basra, by directing the hot-headed Arab settlers to new military campaigns and expansions.<ref>Shaban, M. A.; (1979), ''The Abbāsid Revolution'', p. 17–18.</ref> This not only resulted in settling the internal conflicts in those settlements but also further expanded Rashidun territory to as far west as southern Iberia<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oALIyvjV0fEC&pg=PA22 |last=Stephen Humphreys |first=R. |date=1990 |title=translation The History of al-Tabari, Vol. 15 |page=22 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=9780791401545}}</ref> and as far east as [[Sindh]], Pakistan.<ref>Tabri vol. 4, page 180–181</ref>

=== Lasting Religious Impact ===
Uthman is credited with bringing unity to the current version of the Quran.<ref name="tabatabai5" /> Prior to Uthman's reign, the Qur'an did not formally exist as a fixed text but was written in fragmentary form and as a spoken, recited work.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-quran#:~:text=During%20the%20rule%20of%20one,centres%20of%20the%20Islamic%20Empire |title=British Library |access-date=6 June 2023 |archive-date=1 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001165421/https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-quran#:~:text=During%20the%20rule%20of%20one,centres%20of%20the%20Islamic%20Empire |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Search Results - palmed stalks, thin white stones and also from the men who knew it by heart (page 1) - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم) |url=https://sunnah.com/search?q=palmed+stalks,+thin+white+stones+and+also+from+the+men+who+knew+it+by+heart |access-date=27 August 2023 |website=sunnah.com}}</ref> Uthman observed this brought with it some challenges. For example, even men of the same tribe would at times disagree over how the Quran would be recited.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Search Results - jump over him during his prayer, but I controlled my temper (page 1) - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم) |url=https://sunnah.com/search?q=jump+over+him+during+his+prayer,+but+I+controlled+my+temper |access-date=27 August 2023 |website=sunnah.com}}</ref> Although some of the companions of Mohammed had attempted to bring together collections of the Quran, it had not yet been standardized.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Search Results - Therefore I (Umar) suggest, you (Abu Bakr) order that the Qur'an be collected (page 1) - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم) |url=https://sunnah.com/search?q=Therefore+I+(Umar)+suggest,+you+(Abu+Bakr)+order+that+the+Qur%27an+be+collected |access-date=27 August 2023 |website=sunnah.com}}</ref> [[Anas ibn Malik|Anas bin Malik]] reported "Hudhaifa was afraid of their (the people of Sham and Iraq) differences in the recitation of the Qur'an, so he said to Uthman, "O chief of the Believers! Save this nation before they differ about the Book ... So Uthman sent a message to [[Hafsa bint Umar|Hafsa]] saying, "Send us the manuscripts of the Qur'an so that we may compile the Qur'anic materials in perfect copies and return the manuscripts to you". Hafsa sent it to Uthman. Uthman then ordered [[Zayd ibn Thabit|Zaid bin Thabit]], [[Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr|Abdullah bin Az-Zubair]], Sa'id bin Al-As and Abdur-Rahman bin Harith bin Hisham to rewrite the manuscripts..."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sahih al-Bukhari 4987 - Virtues of the Qur'an - كتاب فضائل القرآن - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم) |url=https://sunnah.com/bukhari:4987 |access-date=27 August 2023 |website=sunnah.com}}</ref> This caliphate order made by Uthman gave the final form of the Quran we have today, and although a few small variants do exist in some areas, most of the variant readings and recitations have been lost or destroyed.<ref>{{cite web 
|url=https://topicsfromquran.com/2021/03/01/the-preservation-of-al-quran-hafs-vs-warsh-other-recitations/#:~:text=They%20have%20minor%20differences%20with%20each%20other |title=The Preservation of Al-Quran (Hafs vs Warsh/Other recitations) |date=March 2021}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{citation |author=[[Barnaby Rogerson]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ExbdVf5fFmUC |title=The Heirs Of The Prophet Muhammad - And the Roots of the Sunni-Shia Schism |date=4 November 2010 |publisher=Little, Brown Book Group |isbn=978-0-7481-2470-1}}
* {{citation |author=Barnaby Rogerson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qzyBPwAACAAJ |title=The Heirs of Muhammad - Islam's First Century and the Origins of the Sunni-Shia Split |date=2008 |publisher=Overlook |isbn=978-1-59020-022-3}}
* {{The History of al-Tabari |volume=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oALIyvjV0fEC}}
* {{cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilferd |author-link=Wilferd Madelung |title=The Succession to Muhammad - A Study of the Early Caliphate |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1997 |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-64696-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Crone |first1=Patricia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ow-mV50c2TUC&pg=PA7 |title=God's Caliph - Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam |last2=Hinds |first2=Martin |date=1986 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-32185-9 |location=Cambridge}}

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Uthman-ibn-Affan Uthmān ibn 'Affān Muslim caliph], in ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', by Asma Afsaruddin, Gita Liesangthem, Surabhi Sinha, Noah Tesch and The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

== External links ==
{{commons category-inline}}
{{wikiquote}}
Views of various Islamic historians on Uthman:
* [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Articles/companion/60_uthman_bin_ghani.htm Uthman in History]
* [http://quilliampress.com/the-khilafa-of-uthman/ Quilliam Press: Uthman ibn Affan] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025115604/http://quilliampress.com/the-khilafa-of-uthman/ |date=25 October 2012}}
Views of the Arab Media on Uthman:
* [http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=sd&ID=SP70404 Ever Since the Murder of Uthman]
Shia view of Uthman:
* [http://al-islam.org/restatement/58.htm Uthman's election]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050411185921/http://www.holynajaf.net/eng/html/nahjulbalaga/030.htm The assassination of Uthman Ibn Affan]
* [http://www.basma.us/site/true_islam/quran/article.quran.graces_of_waki'aah.php Uthman and Abdullah bin Massood]

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{{s-hou|[[Umayyad|Banu Umayya]]||{{circa|579}} |20 June|656|[[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]]}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Umar ibn al-Khattab]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Caliphate|Caliph of Islam]]<br /><small>[[Rashidun Caliph]]</small>|years=6 November 644 – 17 June 656}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ali ibn Abi-Talib]]}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Yazdgerd III]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of kings of Persia|Ruler of Persia]]|years=651 – 656}}
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{{Rashidun Caliphs|state=expanded}}
{{Ten companions of Muhammad|state=expanded}}

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[[Category:Uthman| ]]
[[Category:579 births]]
[[Category:656 deaths]]
[[Category:7th-century murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:7th-century caliphs]]
[[Category:Assassinated caliphs]]
[[Category:Banu Umayya]]
[[Category:Deaths by beating]]
[[Category:Rashidun caliphs]]
[[Category:Sahabah martyrs]]
[[Category:Sahabah who participated in the battle of Uhud]]
[[Category:Burials at Jannat al-Baqī]]
[[Category:Arab Muslims]]