Editing Tuareg languages

{{Short description|Group of closely related Berber languages and dialects}}
{{Infobox language family
| name        = Tamashek
| ethnicity   = [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]]
| date        = 2020–2022
| speakers    = {{sigfig|2.821300|2}} million
| ref         = e27
| region      = [[Sahara]] and [[Sahel]]
| familycolor = Afro-asiatic
| fam2        = [[Berber languages|Berber]]
| child1      = Northern ([[Tamahaq language|Tamahaq]])
| child2      = Southern ([[Tamasheq language|Tamasheq]], [[Air Tamajeq language|Air Tamajeq]], [[Tawellemmet language|Tawellemmet]])
| map         = Tuareg area.png
| iso2        = tmh
| iso3        = tmh
| glotto      = tuar1240
| glottorefname = Tuareg
}}

The '''Tuareg''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|pron|ˈ|t|w|ɑr|ɛ|ɡ}}) languages constitute a group of closely related [[Berber languages]] and [[Dialect|dialects]]. They are spoken by the [[Tuareg people|Tuareg Berbers]] in large parts of [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Algeria]], [[Libya]], and [[Burkina Faso]], with a few speakers, the ''Kinnin'', in [[Chad]].<ref>Monique Jay, [http://www.berberemultimedia.fr/etudes_docum/edb_14.pdf "Quelques éléments sur les Kinnin d’Abbéché (Tchad)"]. ''Études et Documents Berbères'' 14 (1996), 199–212 ({{ISSN|0295-5245}} {{ISBN|2-85744-972-0}}).</ref>

==Description==
Tuareg dialects belong to the South Berber group and are sometimes regarded as a single language (as for instance by [[Karl-Gottfried Prasse]]). They are distinguished mainly by a few sound shifts (notably affecting the pronunciation of original ''z'' and ''h''). The Tuareg varieties are unusually [[Conservative (language)|conservative]] in some respects; they retain two short vowels where Northern-Berber languages have one or none, and have a much lower proportion of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] [[loanword]]s than most Berber languages.{{cn|date=November 2021}}

The Tuareg languages are traditionally written in the indigenous [[Tifinagh]] alphabet. However, the [[Arabic script]] is commonly used in some areas (and has been since medieval times), while the [[Latin script]] is official in [[Mali]] and [[Niger]].{{cn|date=November 2021}}

==Subclassification==
{{tree list}}
*'''Tuareg'''
**Northern
***[[Tamahaq language|Tamahaq]] – language of the [[Kel Ahaggar]], and [[Kel Ajjer]] spoken in Algeria, western [[Libya]] and in the north of Niger by around 77,000 people. Also known as Tahaggart.
**Southern
***[[Tamasheq language|Tamasheq]] – language of the [[Kel Adagh|Kel Adrar]] (also known as [[Adrar des Ifoghas]]), spoken in Mali by approximately 500,000 people.
***[[Air Tamajeq language|Air Tamajaq]] – language of the [[Kel Ayr|Kel Ayer]] (sometimes spelled Aïr), spoken in Niger by approximately 250,000 people.<ref>{{cite web| title=Ethnologue report for language code: thz | url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=thz | access-date=August 17, 2012 | work=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition}}</ref>
***[[Tawellemmet language|Tawellemet]] – language of the Iwellemmeden, spoken in Mali and Niger by approximately 800,000 people. The term [[Iwellemmedan_people|Iwellemmeden]] (the name of the people) is sometimes used to denote the language.
***Tamashaq language of Kal Asakan.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}
{{tree list/end}}

[[Roger Blench|Blench]] (ms, 2006) lists the following as separate languages, with dialects in parentheses:<ref>[http://rogerblench.info/Language/Afroasiatic/General/AALIST.pdf AA list], Blench, ms, 2006</ref>
*[[Tawellemmet language|Tawellemet]] (Abalagh/East, West)
*[[Air Tamajeq language|Tayiṛt]] (Ingal, Gofat)
*[[Air Tamajeq language|Tamesgrest]] (Azerori)
*[[Tafaghist language|Tafaghist]]
*[[Tamahaq language|Tahaggart/Ahaggar]]
*[[Tamahaq language|Ghat]]

Speakers of [[Tetserret language|Tin Sert]] (Tetserret) identify as Tuareg, but the language is [[Tetserret language|Tetserret]], a [[Western Berber languages|Western Berber]].

==Orthography==
The Tuareg languages may be written using the ancient [[Tifinagh]] (Libyco-Berber) script, the [[Latin script]] or the [[Arabic script]]. The Malian national literacy program [[DNAFLA]] has established a standard for the Latin alphabet, which is used with modifications in Prasse's ''Lexique'' and the government literacy program in Burkina, while in Niger a different system was used. There is also some variation in Tifinagh and in the Arabic script.{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|pp=33–36}}

Early uses of the Tifinagh script have been found on [[rock art]] and in various [[sepulchre]]s. Among these are the [[Tin Hinan Tomb|1,500 year old monumental tomb]] of the Tuareg matriarch [[Tin Hinan]], where vestiges of a Tifinagh [[inscription]] have been found on one of its walls.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Briggs|first1=L. Cabot|title=A Review of the Physical Anthropology of the Sahara and Its Prehistoric Implications|journal=Man|date=February 1957|volume=56|pages=20–23|doi=10.2307/2793877 |jstor=2793877}}</ref>

Tifinagh usage is now restricted mainly to writing magical formulae, writing on palms when silence is required, and in letter-writing.<ref>{{cite book|title= Tamazight of the Ayt Ndhir|last= Penchoen|first= Thomas G.|year= 1973|publisher= Undena Publications|location=Los Angeles|page=3}}</ref> The Arabic script is mostly in use by tribes more involved in Islamic learning, and little is known about its conventions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.onderzoekinformatie.nl/en/oi/nod/onderzoek/OND1308586/|title=Orthography in a plurigraphic society: the case of Tuareg in Niger | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503182427/http://www.onderzoekinformatie.nl/en/oi/nod/onderzoek/OND1308586/ | archive-date=May 3, 2008}}</ref>

[[File:Tifinagh abjad.png|thumb|Traditional Tifinagh, including various ligatures of ''t'' and ''n''. Gemination is not indicated. Most of the letters have more than one common form. When the letters ''l'' and ''n'' are adjacent to themselves or to each other, the second one is inclined: ⵍ ("l"), ⵏⵏ ("nn"), ⵍⵏ ("ln"), ⵏⵍ ("nl"), ⵍⵍ ("ll"), ⵏⵏⵏ ("nnn").]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Representative alphabets for Tuareg{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|pp=28,35–36}}<ref>{{cite web | author=Ridouane Ziri, Rachid | title=Les différents systèmes d'écriture amazighe| url=http://www.mondeberbere.com/langue/tifinagh/tifinagh_diffsyst.htm | access-date=August 19, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430081222/http://www.mondeberbere.com/langue/tifinagh/tifinagh_diffsyst.htm | archive-date=April 30, 2017 | language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author=Bizari, Brahim | title=Ecriture amazigh | url=http://bizari.multimania.com/tirra.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010405234304/http://bizari.multimania.com/tirra.htm | archive-date=April 5, 2001 | access-date=August 19, 2012 | language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=Alphabets of Tamashek in Mali: Alphabetization and Tifinagh | url=http://wwwusers.imaginet.fr/~yusuf/tamashek.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040201213949/http://wwwusers.imaginet.fr/~yusuf/tamashek.html | archive-date=February 1, 2004|author1=Fukui, Yusuf Yoshinori |author2=Walett Mahmoud, Khadijatou | access-date=August 18, 2012 }}</ref>
! rowspan="2" | DNAFLA<br>(Mali)<ref>{{cite web| title=Base extended-Latin characters and combinations for languages of Mali | author=Osborn, Don | year=2002 | url=http://www.bisharat.net/A12N/MALI-table.htm | access-date=August 18, 2012 }}</ref>
! rowspan="2" | Niger<ref>{{cite web | author=Enguehard, Chantal | year=2007 | title=alphabet tamajaq (arrété 214-99 de la République du Niger) | url=http://pagesperso.lina.univ-nantes.fr/info/perso/permanents/enguehard/recherche/Afrique/alphabet_tamajaq.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310011304/http://pagesperso.lina.univ-nantes.fr/info/perso/permanents/enguehard/recherche/Afrique/alphabet_tamajaq.htm | archive-date=March 10, 2018 | access-date=August 19, 2012 | language=fr}}</ref>
! colspan="2" | Tifinagh
! rowspan="2" | Arabic
|-
! Image
! Unicode
|-
|-<!-- -->
| a || a || || ||
|-<!-- -->
| || â || || ||
|-<!-- -->
| ă || ă || || ||
|-<!-- -->
| ǝ || ǝ || || ||
|-
| b || b || [[File:2D40.png|20px|alt=ⵀ]] || ⵀ || ب
|-<!-- -->
| (ḅ) || || || ||
|-<!-- -->
| || c || || ||
|-
| d || d || [[File:2D37.png|20px|alt=ⴷ]] || ⴷ || د
|-
| ḍ || ḍ || [[File:2D39.png|20px|alt=ⴹ]] || ⴹ || ض
|-<!-- -->
| e || e || || ||
|-<!-- -->
| || ê || || ||
|-
| f || f || [[File:2D3C.png|20px|alt=ⴼ]] || ⴼ || ف
|-
| g || g || [[File:2D33.png|20px|alt=ⴳ]] || ⴳ || [[Gaf|{{script/Arabic|گ ݣ}}]]
|-<!-- -->
| i || i || || ||
|-<!-- -->
| || î || || ||
|-
| j || j || [[File:2D36.png|20px|alt=ⴶ]] || ⴶ || چ
|-<!-- -->
| || ǰ || || ||
|-
| ɣ || ɣ || [[File:2D57.png|20px|alt=ⵗ]] || ⵗ || غ
|-
| h || h || [[File:2D42.png|20px|alt=ⵂ]] || ⵂ || ه
|-
| k || k || [[File:2D3E.png|20px|alt=ⴾ]] || ⴾ || ک
|-
| l || l || [[File:2D4D.png|20px|alt=ⵍ]] || ⵍ || ل
|-<!-- -->
| ḷ || ḷ || || ||
|-
| m || m || [[File:2D4E.png|20px|alt=ⵎ]] || ⵎ || م
|-
| n || n || [[File:2D4F.png|20px|alt=ⵏ]] || ⵏ || ن
|-<!-- -->
| ŋ || ŋ || || ||
|-<!-- -->
| o || o || || ||
|-<!-- -->
| || ô || || ||
|-
| q || q || [[File:2D46.png|20px|alt=ⵆ]] [[File:2D48.png|20px|alt=ⵈ]] || ⵆ, ⵈ || ق
|-
| r || r || [[File:2D54.png|20px|alt=ⵔ]] || ⵔ || ر
|-
| s || s || [[File:2D59.png|20px|alt=ⵙ]] || ⵙ || س
|-
| ṣ || ṣ || [[File:2D5A.png|20px|alt=ⵚ]] || ⵚ || ص
|-
| š (ʃ)|| š || [[File:2D5B.png|20px|alt=ⵛ]] || ⵛ || ش
|-
| t || t || [[File:2D5C.png|20px|alt=ⵜ]] || ⵜ || ت
|-
| ṭ || ṭ || [[File:2D5F.png|20px|alt=ⵟ]] || ⵟ || ط
|-<!-- -->
| u || u || || ||
|-<!-- -->
|  || û || || ||
|-
| w || w || [[File:2D53.png|20px|alt=ⵓ]] || ⵓ || و
|-
| x || x || [[File:2D45.png|20px|alt=ⵅ]] || ⵅ || خ
|-
| y || y || [[File:2D62.png|20px|alt=ⵢ]] [[File:2D49.png|20px|alt=ⵉ]] || ⵢ, ⵉ || ي
|-
| z || z || [[File:2D4C.png|20px|alt=ⵌ]] [[File:2D63.png|20px|alt=ⵣ]] || ⵌ, ⵣ || ز
|-
| ẓ || ẓ || [[File:2D65.png|20px|alt=ⵥ]] || ⵥ || ظ
|-
| ž (ʒ) || ǧ || [[File:2D4A.png|20px|alt=ⵊ]]<!-- ⵋ ?--> || ⵊ || ج
|-
| ḥ || || [[File:2D46.png|20px|alt=ⵆ]] || ⵆ || ح
|-
| (ʕ) || || [[File:2D44.png|20px|alt=ⵄ]] || ⵄ || ع
|}

The DNAFLA system is a somewhat [[Morphophonology|morphophonemic]] orthography, not indicating initial vowel shortening, always writing the directional particle as < dd⟩, and not indicating all [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilations]] (e.g. {{angbr|Tămašăɣt}} for [tămašăq]).{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=34}}

In Burkina Faso the emphatics are denoted by "hooked" letters, as in [[Fula language|Fula]], e.g. {{angbr|ɗ ƭ}}.{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=33}}

==Phonology==

===Vowels===
The vowel system includes five long vowels, {{IPA|/a, e, i, o, u/}} and two short vowels, {{IPA|/ə, ă/}} (on this page, {{IPA|/ă/}} is used to represent [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[æ]}}). Some of the vowels have more open "emphatic" allophones that occur immediately before emphatic consonants, subject to dialectal variation. These allophones include {{IPA|[ɛ]}} for {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} (although {{IPA|/i/}} may be less open), {{IPA|[ɔ]}} for {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} (although {{IPA|/u/}} may be less open), and {{IPA|[ă]}} for {{IPA|/ə/}}.{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=25}} Karl Prasse argued that /e/ goes back to [[Proto-Berber language|Proto-Berber]], while /o/ is derived from /u/.<ref>K.-G. Prasse (1990), New Light on the Origin of the Tuareg Vowels E and O, in: H. G. Mukarovsky (ed), Proceedings of the Fifth International Hamito-Semitic Congress, Vienna, I 163–170.</ref> Comparative evidence shows that /ə/ derives from a merger of Proto-Berber */ĭ/ and */ŭ/.

Sudlow classes the "semivowels" /w, j/ with the vowels, and notes the following possible diphthongs: /əw/ (> [u]), /ăw/, /aw/, /ew/, /iw/, /ow/, /uw/, /əj/ (> [i]), /ăj/, /aj/, /ej/, /ij/, /oj/, /uj/.{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|pp=25–26}}

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Tamasheq consonants{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|pp=26–28}}
! rowspan=2 colspan=2|
! rowspan=2|[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan=2|[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan=2|[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan=2|[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan=2|[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan=2|[[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
! rowspan=2|[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! <small>plain</small> !! <small>[[Emphatic consonant|emphatic]]</small>
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}}
| {{IPAlink|n}}
| ||
| {{IPAlink|ŋ}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ŋ/}} is rare.}}
| || ||
|-
!rowspan=2| [[Plosive]]
! {{small|voiceless}}
|
| {{IPAlink|t}}
| {{IPAlink|tˤ}}
|
| {{IPAlink|k}}
| {{IPAlink|q}}
|
| ({{IPAlink|ʔ}})
|-
! {{small|voiced}}
|[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]
| {{IPAlink|d}}
| {{IPAlink|dˤ}}
| {{IPAlink|ɟ}}{{notetag|Sudlow (2001:26) does not make it clear whether this is a true [[palatal stop]] or something else, possibly a front [[velar stop]] or some sort of affricate.}}
| {{IPAlink|ɡ}}
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2| [[Fricative]]
! {{small|voiceless}}
| {{IPAlink|f}}
| {{IPAlink|s}}
| ({{IPAlink|sˤ}}){{efn|name=loanwords|{{IPA|/lˤ, sˤ/}} only occur in Arabic loans and {{IPAslink|lˤ}} only in the name of [[Allah]].}}
| {{IPAlink|ʃ}}
| colspan="2"| {{IPAlink|x}}{{efn|name=velar/uvular|Sudlow (2001:26) doesn't specify whether these are velar or uvular.}}
| ({{IPAlink|ħ}}){{efn|name=Tanəsləmt|{{IPA|/ħ, ʕ/}} are only used in Arabic words in the Tanəsləmt dialect (most Tamasheq replace them with {{IPA|/x, ɣ/}} respectively).{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=26-28}}}}
| {{IPAlink|h}}
|-
! {{small|voiced}}
|
| {{IPAlink|z}}
| {{IPAlink|zˤ}}
| {{IPAlink|ʒ}}{{efn|{{IPA|/ʒ/}} is rare in Tadɣaq.}}
| colspan="2"| {{IPAlink|ɣ}}{{efn|name=velar/uvular}}
| ({{IPAlink|ʕ}}){{efn|name=Tanəsləmt}}
|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
| {{IPAlink|l}}
| ({{IPAlink|lˤ}}){{efn|name=loanwords}}
| || || || ||
|}
{{notelist}}

The consonant inventory largely resembles Arabic: differentiated voicing; uvulars, pharyngeals (traditionally referred to as emphatics) {{IPA|/tˤ/, /lˤ/, /sˤ/, /dˤ/, /zˤ/}}; requiring the pharynx muscles to contract and influencing the pronunciation of the following vowel, and no [[voiceless bilabial plosive]].{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|pp=26–7}}

The [[glottal stop]] is non-phonemic. It occurs at the beginning of vowel-initial words to fill the place of the initial consonant in the syllable structure (see below), although if the words is preceded by a word ending in a consonant, it makes a [[Sandhi|liaison]] instead. Phrase-final /a/ is also followed by a phonetic [[glottal stop]].{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=27}}

Gemination is contrastive.{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=28}} Normally {{IPA|/ɣɣ/}} becomes {{IPA|[qː]}}, {{IPA|/ww/}} becomes {{IPA|[ɡː]}}, and {{IPA|/dˤdˤ/}} becomes {{IPA|[tˤː]}}.{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=28}} {{IPA|/q/}} and {{IPA|/tˤ/}} are predominantly geminate. In addition, in Tadɣaq {{IPA|/ɡ/}} is usually geminate, but in Tudalt singleton {{IPA|/ɡ/}} may occur.{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=28}}

Voicing assimilation occurs, with the first consonant taking the voicing of the second (e.g. {{IPA|/edˤkăr/}} > {{IPA|[etˤkăr]}}).{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|pp=28–29}}

[[Cluster reduction]] turns word/morpheme-final {{IPA|/-ɣt, -ɣk/}} into {{IPA|[-qː]}} and {{IPA|/-kt, -ɟt, -ɡt/}} into {{IPA|[-kː]}} (e.g. {{IPA|/tămaʃăɣt/}} > {{IPA|[tămaʃăq]}} 'Tamasheq'{{notetag|Note that the geminate is dropped if not followed by a vowel.}}).{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=29}}

===Phonotactics===
Syllable structure is CV(C)(C), including [[glottal stop]]s (see above).{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=27}}

===Suprasegmentals===
Contrastive stress may occur in the stative aspect of verbs.{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=25}}

===Dialectal differences===

Different dialects have slightly different consonant inventories. Some of these differences can be [[diachronic linguistics|diachronically]] accounted for. For example, Proto-Berber ''*h'' is mostly lost in Ayer Tuareg, while it is maintained in almost every position in Mali Tuareg. The Iwellemmeden and Ahaggar Tuareg dialects are midway between these positions.{{sfn|Prasse|1969}}{{sfn|Kossmann|1999}} The Proto-Berber consonant ''*z'' comes out differently in different dialects, a development that is to some degree reflected in the dialect names. It is realized as ''h'' in Tamahaq (Tahaggart), as ''š'' in Tamasheq and as simple ''z'' in the Tamajaq dialects Tawallammat and Tayart. In the latter two, ''*z'' is realised as ''ž'' before palatal vowels, explaining the form ''Tamajaq''. In Tawallammat and especially Tayart, this kind of palatalization actually does not confine itself to ''z''. In these dialects, dentals in general are palatalized before {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}. For example, ''tidət'' is pronounced {{IPA|[tidʲət]}} in Tayart.<ref>Prasse e.a. 2003:xiv</ref>

Other differences can easily be traced back to borrowing. For example, the Arabic pharyngeals ''ħ'' and ''ʻ'' have been borrowed along with Arabic loanwords by dialects specialized in Islamic ([[Maraboutic]]) learning. Other dialects substitute ''ħ'' and ''ʻ'' respectively with ''x'' and ''ɣ''.

==Grammar==

The basic word order in Tuareg is [[verb–subject–object]]. Verbs can be grouped into 19 morphological classes; some of these classes can be defined semantically. Verbs carry information on the subject of the sentence in the form of pronominal marking. No simple adjectives exist in the Tuareg languages; adjectival concepts are expressed using a relative verb form traditionally called 'participle'<!-- don't wikilink, it's really different from your garden variety participle-->. The Tuareg languages have very heavily influenced Northern [[Songhay languages]] such as [[Sawaq language|Sawaq]], whose speakers are culturally Tuareg but speak Songhay; this influence includes points of phonology and sometimes grammar as well as extensive loanwords.

===Syntax===
Tamasheq prefers VSO order; however it contains [[topic–comment]] structure (like in American Sign Language, Modern Hebrew, Japanese and Russian), allowing the emphasized concept to be placed first, be it the subject or object, the latter giving an effect somewhat like the English passive.{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=46}} Sudlow uses the following examples, all expressing the concept "Men don't cook porridge" (e denotes Sudlow's schwa):

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{lang|tmh|meddăn wăr sekediwăn ăsink}}
| SVO
|-
| {{lang|tmh|wăr sekediwăn meddăn ăsink}}
| VSO
|-
| {{lang|tmh|ăsinkwăr ti-sekediwăn meddăn}}
| 'Porridge, men don't cook it.'
|-
| {{lang|tmh|wădde meddăn {{not a typo|a}} isakădawăn ăsink}}
| 'It isn't men who cook porridge.'
|-
| {{lang|tmh|meddăn a wăren isekediw ăsink}}
| 'Men are not those who cook porridge.'
|}

Again like Japanese, the "pronoun/particle 'a' is used with a following relative clause to bring a noun in a phrase to the beginning for emphasis," a structure which can be used to emphasize even objects of prepositions.{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=48}} Sudlow's example (s denotes voiceless palato-alveolar fricative):

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{lang|tmh|essensăɣ enăle}}
| 'I bought millet.'
|-
| {{lang|tmh|enăle a essensăɣ}}
| 'It was millet that I bought.'
|}

The indirect object marker takes the form i/y in Tudalt and e/y in Tadɣaq.{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=1.1.}}

===Morphology===

As a root-and-pattern, or [[templatic]] language, [[triliteral roots]] (three-consonant bases) are the most common in Tamasheq. Niels and Regula Christiansen use the root k-t-b (to write) to demonstrate past completed aspect conjugation:

<div style="float:right; margin-left:20px">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Tamasheq subject affixes{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=118}}
|-
! colspan="2" |
! singular
! plural
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person
| {{lang|tmh|...-ăɣ}}
| {{lang|tmh|n-...}}
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| {{lang|tmh|t-...-ăd}}
| {{lang|tmh|t-...-ăm}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! {{gcl|M}}
| {{lang|tmh|y-...}}
| {{lang|tmh|t-...-măt}}
|-
! {{gcl|F}}
| {{lang|tmh|t-...}}
| {{lang|tmh|...-ăn}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Participle form,<br />i.e. "who ..."
! {{gcl|M}}
| {{lang|tmh|y-...-ăn}}
| {{lang|tmh|...-năt}}
|-
! {{gcl|F}}
| {{lang|tmh|t-...-ăt}}
| {{lang|tmh|...-nen}}
|}
</div>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Conjugation of k-t-b 'write'{{sfn|Christiansen|Christiansen|2002|p=5}}
! colspan="2" | Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st
| {{interlinear|ektabaɣ|write.1S|'I wrote'}}
| {{interlinear|nektab|write.1P|'We wrote'}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd
! <small>(m)</small>
| rowspan="2" | {{interlinear|tektabad|write.2S|'You wrote'}}
| {{interlinear|tektabam|write.2P/M|'You wrote'}}
|-
! <small>(f)</small>
| {{interlinear|tektabmat|write.2P/F|'You wrote'}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd
! <small>(m)</small>
| {{interlinear|iktab|write.3S/M|'He wrote'}}
| {{interlinear|ektaban|write.3P/M|'They wrote'}}
|-
! <small>(f)</small>
| {{interlinear|tektab|write.3S/F|'She wrote'}}
| {{interlinear|ektabnat|write.3P/F|'They wrote'}}
|}

The verbal correspondence with the use of aspect; Tamasheq uses four, as delineated by Sudlow:

# Perfective: complete actions
# Stative: "lasting states as the ongoing results of a completed action."
# Imperfective: future or possible actions, "often used following a verb expressing emotion, decision or thought," it can be marked with "'ad'" (shortened to "'a-'" with prepositions).
# Cursive: ongoing actions, often habitual ones.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ aspects
! Verb
! Perfective/simple perfect
! Stative/intensive perfect
! Imperfective/simple perfect
! Cursive/intensive imperfect
|-
! rowspan="2" | z-g-r
| izgăr
| izgăr
|
|
|-
| 'He went out'
| 'He has gone out'
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | b-d-d
| ibdăd
| ibdăd
|
|
|-
| 'He stood up'
| 'He stood up (and so he is standing up)'
|-
! rowspan="2" |
| ekkeɣ hebu
| ekkêɣ hebu
|
|
|-
| 'I went to market'
| 'I am going to market'
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | l-m-d
|
|
| ad elmedăɣ Tămasăq
| lammădăɣ Tămasăq
|-
|
|
| 'I will learn Tamasheq'
| 'I am learning Tamasheq'
|-
! rowspan="2" |
|
|
| a-dd-as asekka
|
|-
|
|
| 'He will arrive (here) tomorrow'
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |
|
|
|
| iwan tattănăt alemmoZ
|-
|
|
|
| 'Cows eat straw'
|-
! rowspan="2" |
|
|
|
| ăru tasăɣalăɣ siha
|-
|
|
|
| 'I used to work over there'
|}

Commands are expressed in the [[imperative mood]], which tends to be a form of the imperfective aspect, unless the action is to be repeated or continued, in which case the cursive aspect is preferred.{{sfn|Sudlow|2001|p=57}}

==Further reading==

===Bibliographies===
*Bougchiche, Lamara. (1997) ''Langues et litteratures berberes des origines a nos jours. Bibliographie internationale et systematique.'' Paris: Ibis Press.
*Chaker, Salem, ed. (1988) ''Etudes touaregues. Bilan des recherches en sciences sociales.'' Travaux et Documents de i.R.E.M.A.M. no. 5. Aix-en-Provence: IREMAM / LAPMO.
*Leupen, A.H.A. (1978) ''Bibliographie des populations touaregues: Sahara et Soudan centraux.'' Leiden: [[Afrika-Studiecentrum, Leiden|Afrika Studiecentrum]].

===Dictionaries===
[[File:De Foucauld - Dictionnaire touareg–français, vol 1 p. 247.jpg|right|thumb|Page 247 of the 1951 ''Dictionnaire Touareg–Français'', showcasing De Foucauld's meticulous handwriting accompanied by detailed illustrations of ''tasdest'' 'tent-pole' and other tent-building terms of the ''[[Kel Ahaggar]]''.]]
*[[Charles de Foucauld]] (1951–1952) ''Dictionnaire touareg–francais''. 4 vol. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale de France. [posthumous facsimile publication (author dec. 1916); dialect of Hoggar, southern Algeria]
* Jeffrey Heath (2006) ''Dictionnaire tamachek–anglais–français''. Paris: Karthala. [covers dialects of northern Mali]
* Motylinski, A. (1908). [http://gallica.bnf.fr/document?O=N082531 Grammaire, dialogues et dictionnaire touaregs]. Alger: P. Fontana.
*[[Karl-G Prasse]], Ghoubeid Alojaly and Ghabdouane Mohamed, (2003) ''Dictionnaire touareg–francais (Niger)''. 2nd edition revised; 2 vol. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, University of Copenhagen. [1st edition 1998; covers two dialects of the northern Republic of Niger]

===Grammars===
*Christiansen, Niels, and Regula. "Some verb morphology features of Tadaksahak ." SIL Electronic Working Papers. 2002. SIL International. 2 December 2007 <[http://www.sil.org/silewp/yearindex.asp?year=2002]>.
* Hanoteau, A. (1896) ''[https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1047497 Essai de grammaire de la langue tamachek' : renfermant les principes du langage parlé par les Imouchar' ou Touareg]''. Alger: A. Jourdan.
*Galand, Lionel. (1974) 'Introduction grammaticale'. In: Petites Soeurs de Jesus, ''Contes touaregs de l'Air'' (Paris: SELAF), pp.&nbsp;15–41.
* Heath, Jeffrey. 2005. ''Grammar of Tamashek (Tuareg of Mali)''. (Mouton Grammar Series.) the Hague: Mouton de Gruyter.
*{{Citation |last= Kossmann|first=Maarten G.|year= 2011|title= A Grammar of Ayer Tuareg (Niger)|publisher= Rüdiger Köppe|publication-place= Köln |series=Berber Studies|volume=30}}
*Prasse, Karl G. (1973) ''Manuel de grammaire touaregue (tahaggart)''. 4 vol. Copenhagen.

===Texts===
* Ag Erless, Mohamed (1999) ''"Il n'y a qu'un soleil sur terre". Contes, proverbes et devinettes des Touaregs Kel-Adagh.'' Aix-en-Provence: IREMAM.
* Aghali-Zakara, Mohamed & Jeannine Drouin (1979) ''Traditions touarègues nigériennes.'' Paris: L'Harmattan.
* Albaka, Moussa & Dominique Casajus (1992) ''Poésies et chant touaregs de l'Ayr. Tandis qu'ils dorment tous, je dis mon chant d'amour''. Paris: L'Harmattan.
* Alojaly, Ghoubeïd (1975) ''Ǎttarikh ən-Kəl-Dənnəg – Histoire des Kel-Denneg.'' Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.
* Casajus, Dominique (1985) ''Peau d'Âne et autres contes touaregs''. Paris: L'Harmattan.
* Chaker, Salem & Hélène Claudot & Marceau Gast, eds. (1984) ''Textes touaregs en prose de Charles de Foucauld et. A. de Calassanto-Motylinski.'' Aix-en-Provence: Édisud.
* [http://etudesafricaines.revues.org/document19.html  Chants touaregs. Recueillis et traduits par Charles de Foucauld. Paris, Albin Michel, 1997]
* Foucauld, Charles de (1925) ''Poésies touarègues. Dialecte de l'Ahaggar.'' Paris: Leroux.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061208062646/http://www.ehess.fr/centres/ceifr/assr/N112/019.htm ''Lettres au marabout. Messages touaregs au Père de Foucauld''. Paris, Belin, 1999]
* Heath, Jeffrey (2005) ''Tamashek Texts from Timbuktu and Kidal''. Berber Linguistics Series. Cologne: Koeppe Verlag
* Louali-Raynal, Naïma & Nadine Decourt & Ramada Elghamis (1997) ''Littérature orale touarègue. Contes et proverbes.'' Paris: L'Harmattan.
* Mohamed, Ghabdouane & Karl-G. Prasse (1989) ''Poèmes touarègues de l'Ayr.'' 2 vol. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.
* Mohamed, Ghabdouane & Karl-G. Prasse (2003) ''əlqissǎt ən-təməddurt-in – Le récit de ma vie.'' Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.
*Nicolaisen, Johannes, and Ida Nicolaisen. The Pastoral Tuareg: Ecology, Culture, and Society. Vol. 1,2. New York: Thames and Hudson, Inc, 1997. 2 vols.
* Nicolas, Francis (1944) ''Folklore Twareg. Poésies et Chansons de l'Azawarh.'' BIFAN VI, 1–4, p.&nbsp;1–463.

===Linguistic topics===
* Cohen, David (1993) 'Racines'. In: Drouin & Roth, eds. ''À la croisée des études libyco-berbères. Mélanges offerts à Paulette Galand-Pernet et Lionel Galand'' (Paris: Geuthner), 161–175.
* Kossmann, Maarten (1999) ''Essai sur la phonologie du proto-berbère''. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.
* Prasse, Karl G. (1969) ''A propos de l'origine de ''h'' touareg (tahaggart)''. Copenhagen.

==Notes==
{{notefoot}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite web |last1=Christiansen |first1=Niels |last2=Christiansen |first2=Regula |year=2002 |title=Some verb morphology features of Tadaksahak |url=http://www.sil.org/silewp/abstract.asp?ref=2002-005 |website=SIL Electronic Working Papers |publisher=SIL International |location=Dallas |volume=2002 |issue=5}}
*{{Cite book |last=Heath |first=Jeffrey |title=A grammar of Tamashek (Tuareg of Mali) |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2005 |isbn=3-11-018484-2 |pages=745}}
*{{Cite book |last=Sudlow |first=David |url=http://www.mondeberbere.com/langue/tamasheq/ |title=The Tamasheq of North-East Burkina Faso |publisher=Rüdiger Köppe Verlag |year=2001 |location=Köln}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050730075554/http://www.geocities.com/lameens/tifinagh/ Souag, L.: Writing Berber Languages]

{{Berber languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tuareg Languages}}
[[Category:Tuareg languages| ]]
[[Category:Berber languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Algeria]]