Editing Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

{{Short description|1848 agreement ending the Mexican–American War}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox treaty
| name                 = Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
| long_name            = Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Limits, and Settlement between the United States of America and the United Mexican States
| image                = TreatyOfGuadalupeHidalgoCover.jpg
| image_width          = <!-- 200px -->
| image_alt            = <!-- alt-text here for accessibility; see [[MOS:ACCESS]] -->
| caption              = Cover of the exchange copy of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
| type                 =
| context              =
| date_drafted         =
| date_signed          = {{Start date|1848|02|02|df=y}}
| location_signed      = [[Villa de Guadalupe, Mexico City|Guadalupe Hidalgo]]
| date_sealed          =
| date_effective       = 30 May 1848
| condition_effective  =
| date_expiration      = <!-- {{End date|YYYY|MM|DD}} OR: -->
| date_expiry          = <!-- {{End date|YYYY|MM|DD}} -->
| mediators            = <!-- format this as a bullet list -->
| negotiators          =
   {{Collapsible list
   |1 = {{flagicon|Mexico|1823}} {{ill|José Bernardo Couto|es}}
   |2 = {{flagicon|Mexico|1823}} Miguel de Atristain
   |3 = {{flagicon|Mexico|1823}} [[Luis Gonzaga Cuevas]]<hr/>
   |4 = {{flagicon|United States|1847}} [[Nicholas Trist]]
   }}
| original_signatories = <!-- format this as a bullet list -->
| signatories          =

| parties              = * {{flagdeco|Mexico|1823}} [[Second Federal Republic of Mexico|Mexico]]
* {{flag|United States|1847}}
| ratifiers            = <!-- format this as a bullet list -->
| depositor            = <!-- OR: -->
| depositories         = <!-- format this as a bullet list -->
| citations            = {{USStat|9|922}}; [[Treaty series#United States|TS]] 207; 9 [[Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America 1776–1949|Bevans]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=U84WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA791 791]
| language            = <!-- OR: -->
| languages            = <!-- format this as a bullet list -->
| wikisource           = <!-- OR: -->
| wikisource1          = <!-- Up to 5 wikisourceN variables may be specified -->
| footnotes            = See also the military convention of 29 February 1848 (5 [[Treaties and other International Acts of the United States of America|Miller]] 407; 9 [[Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America 1776–1949|Bevans]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=U84WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA807 807]).
}}
{{Chicano and Mexican American topics sidebar|state=collapsed}}

The '''Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo'''{{efn |({{langx|es|Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo}}), officially the '''Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Limits, and Settlement between the United States of America and the United Mexican States'''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo [Exchange copy] |url=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/299809 |website=NATIONAL ARCHIVES CATALOG |publisher=US National Archives |access-date=13 October 2019 |date=2 February 1848}}</ref>}} officially ended the [[Mexican–American War]] (1846–1848). It was signed on 2 February 1848 in the town of [[Villa de Guadalupe, Mexico City|Guadalupe Hidalgo]].

After the defeat of its army and the fall of the capital in September 1847, [[Mexico]] entered into peace negotiations with the U.S. envoy, [[Nicholas Trist]]. The resulting treaty required [[Mexico]] to cede 55 percent of its territory including the present-day states of [[California]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], most of [[Colorado]], [[New Mexico]] and [[Arizona]], and a small portion of [[Wyoming]]. [[Mexico]] also relinquished all claims for [[Texas]] and recognized the [[Rio Grande]] as the southern boundary of [[Texas]].

In turn, the U.S. government paid [[Mexico]] $15 million "in consideration of the extension acquired by the boundaries of the United States" and agreed to pay debts owed to American citizens by the [[Mexico|Mexican]] government. [[Mexico|Mexicans]] in areas annexed by the U.S. could relocate within [[Mexico]]'s new boundaries or receive American citizenship and full civil rights.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) |url=https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/treaty-of-guadalupe-hidalgo |access-date=February 7, 2023 |website=U.S. National Archives, Milestone Documents|date=25 June 2021 }}</ref>

The United States ratified the treaty on 10 March and [[Mexico]] on 19 May. The ratifications were exchanged on 30 May, and the treaty was proclaimed on 4 July 1848.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/guadhida.asp |title=Avalon Project – Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; February 2, 1848 |publisher=Avalon.law.yale.edu |access-date=2017-05-13}}</ref>

The [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] ratified the treaty by a vote of 38–16. The opponents of this treaty were led by the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]]s, who had opposed the war and rejected [[manifest destiny]] in general, and rejected this expansion in particular. The amount of land gained by the [[United States]] from [[Mexico]] was further increased due to the [[Gadsden Purchase]] of 1853, which ceded parts of present-day southern [[Arizona]] and [[New Mexico]] to the [[United States]].

==Negotiators==
Nicholas Trist negotiated the peace talks; Trist, the chief clerk of the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]], accompanied [[Winfield Scott|General Winfield Scott]] as a diplomat and [[James K. Polk|President James K. Polk]]'s representative. After two previous unsuccessful attempts to negotiate a treaty with General [[José Joaquín de Herrera]], Trist and General Scott determined that the only way to deal with [[Mexico]] was as a conquered enemy. Trist negotiated with a special commission representing the collapsed government led by José Bernardo Couto, Miguel de Atristain, and [[Luis Gonzaga Cuevas]] of [[Mexico]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Defiant Peacemaker: Nicholas Trist in the Mexican War|first=Wallace|last=Ohrt|year=1997|publisher=Texas A & M University Press|location=College Station|isbn=0-89096-778-4}}</ref>{{page needed|date=December 2023}}

==Terms==
[[File:Map of Mexico 1847.jpg|thumb|right|300 px|''"Mapa de los Estados Unidos de Méjico'' by John Disturnell, the 1847 map used during the negotiations]]
Although [[Mexico]] ceded [[Alta California]] and [[Santa Fe de Nuevo México]], the text of the treaty<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/guadhida.asp |title=Avalon Project – Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; February 2, 1848 |publisher=Avalon.law.yale.edu |access-date=2013-07-08}}</ref> did not list territories to be ceded and avoided the disputed issues that were causes of war: the validity of the 1836 revolution that established the [[Republic of Texas]], [[Texas]]'s boundary claims as far as the [[Rio Grande]], and the right of the Republic of [[Texas]] to arrange the 1845 [[Texas annexation|annexation of Texas]] by the [[United States]].

Instead, Article V of the treaty described the new [[Mexico–United States border|U.S.–Mexico border]]. From east to west, the border consisted of the [[Rio Grande]] northwest from its mouth to the point where it strikes the southern boundary of [[New Mexico]] (roughly 32 degrees north), as shown in the [https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/ghtreaty/ghmap.jpg Disturnell map], then due west from this point to the [[110th meridian west]], then north along the 110th meridian to the [[Gila River]] and down the river to its mouth. Unlike the [[New Mexico]] segment of the boundary, which depended partly on unknown geography, "to preclude all difficulty in tracing upon the ground the limit separating Upper from [[Baja California Peninsula#Partition|Lower California]]", a straight line was drawn from the mouth of the [[Gila River|Gila]] to one [[League (unit)|marine league]] south of the southernmost point of the [[Port of San Diego]], slightly north of the [[The Californias#Border|previous Mexican provincial boundary]] at [[Rosarito Beach|Playas de Rosarito]].

Comparing the boundary in the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] to the Guadalupe Hidalgo boundary, [[Mexico]] conceded about 55% of its pre-war, pre-[[Texas]] territorial claims<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=26|title=Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo|publisher=ourdocuments.gov|access-date=27 June 2007}}</ref> and now has an area of {{convert|1,972,550|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.

In the [[United States]], the {{convert|1.36|e6km2|sqmi|abbr=unit}} of the area between the Adams-Onís and Guadalupe Hidalgo boundaries outside the {{convert|1007935|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} claimed by the Republic of [[Texas]] is known as the [[Mexican Cession]]. That is to say, the [[Mexican Cession]] is construed not to include any territory east of the [[Rio Grande]], while the territorial claims of the Republic of [[Texas]] included no territory west of the [[Rio Grande]]. The [[Mexican Cession]] included essentially the entirety of the former [[Mexico|Mexican]] territory of [[Alta California]], but only the western portion of [[Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico]], and includes all of present-day [[California]], [[Nevada]] and [[Utah]], most of [[Arizona]], western portions of [[New Mexico]] and [[Colorado]], and the southwestern corner of [[Wyoming]].

Articles VIII and IX ensured the safety of existing [[property rights]] of [[Mexico|Mexican]] citizens living in the transferred territories. Despite assurances to the contrary, [[Land grants in New Mexico|land grants]] by the [[Mexico|Mexican]] government to its citizens were often not honored by the [[United States]] because of unilateral modifications to and interpretations of the Treaty and U.S. legal decisions.<ref>U.S. Congress. Recommendation of the Public Land Commission for Legislation as to Private Land Claims, 46th Congress, 2nd Session, 1880, House Executive Document 46, pp. 1116–17.</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Mexicanos: A history of Mexicans in the United States |first=Manuel G. |last=Gonzales |location=Bloomington |publisher=Indiana University Press |edition=2nd |year=2009 |pages=86–87 |isbn=978-0-253-33520-3 }}</ref> Land disputes between the descendants of Mexican land owners and Anglo Americans continued into the 21st century.<ref name="RMPBS">{{cite news |last1=Perdoni |first1=Kate |title=Plaintiffs in Costilla County land rights hearing describe a 'campaign of harassment' Facebook shareTwitter shareEmail share |url=https://www.rmpbs.org/blogs/news/plaintiffs-in-costilla-county-land-rights-hearing-describe-a-campaign-of-harassment/ |publisher=Rocky Mountain PBS |date=September 30, 2021}}</ref>{{sfn|Davenport|2005|p=48}} The United States also agreed to assume $3.25 million (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|3.25|1848|r=1}} million today) in debts that Mexico owed to United States citizens.

The residents had one year to choose whether they wanted American or Mexican citizenship; over 90% chose American citizenship. The others moved to what remained of Mexico (where they received land) or, in some cases in New Mexico, were allowed to remain in place as Mexican citizens.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Linda C. |last=Noel |title='I am an American': Anglos, Mexicans, Nativos, and the National Debate over Arizona and New Mexico Statehood |journal=Pacific Historical Review |year=2011 |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=430–467 [at p. 436] |doi=10.1525/phr.2011.80.3.430 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Griswold del Castillo |title=The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: A Legacy of Conflict |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/treatyofguadalup00rich |chapter-url-access=registration |location=Norman |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-8061-2240-4 |chapter=Citizenship and Property Rights: U.S. Interpretations of the Treaty |pages=[https://archive.org/details/treatyofguadalup00rich/page/62 62-86] }}</ref>

Article XII engaged the United States to pay, "In consideration of the extension acquired", 15 million dollars (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|15|1848|r=-1}} million today),<ref name="librarycongress">{{cite web |title=The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo |url=https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/guadalupe-hidalgo#background |website=loc.gov|date=15 August 2016 }}</ref> in annual installments of 3 million dollars.

Article XI of the treaty was important to Mexico. It provided that the United States would prevent and punish raids by [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] into Mexico, prohibited Americans from acquiring property, including livestock, taken by the Indians in those raids, and stated that the United States would return captives of the Indians to Mexico. Mexicans believed that the United States had encouraged and assisted the [[Comanche]] and [[Apache]] raids that had devastated northern Mexico in the years before the war. This article promised relief to them.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Delay | first1 = Brian | year = 2007 | title = Independent Indians and the U.S. Mexican War | doi = 10.1086/ahr.112.1.35 | journal = The American Historical Review | volume = 112 | issue = 1| page = 67 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Article XI, however, proved unenforceable. Destructive Indian raids continued despite a heavy U.S. presence near the Mexican border. Mexico filed 366 claims with the U.S. government for damages done by Comanche and Apache raids between 1848 and 1853.<ref>{{cite web |last=Schmal |first=John P. |title=Sonora: Four Centuries of Indigenous Resistance |publisher=Houston Institute of Culture |url=http://www.houstonculture.org/mexico/sonora2.html |access-date=12 July 2012 }}</ref> In 1853, in the Treaty of Mesilla concluding the [[Gadsden Purchase]], Article XI was annulled.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Richard Kluger |last=Kluger |first=Richard |title=Seizing Destiny: How America Grew From Sea to Shining Sea |url=https://archive.org/details/seizingdestinyho00klug |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Knopf |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/seizingdestinyho00klug/page/493 493–494] |isbn=978-0-375-41341-4 }}</ref>

===Results===
The land that the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought into the United States became, between 1850 and 1912, all or part of nine states: [[California]] (1850), [[Nevada]] (1864), [[Utah]] (1896), and [[Arizona]] (1912), as well as, depending upon interpretation, the entire state of Texas (1845), which then included part of [[Kansas]] (1861); [[Colorado]] (1876); [[Wyoming]] (1890); [[Oklahoma]] (1907); and [[New Mexico]] (1912). The area of domain acquired was given by the Federal Interagency Committee as 338,680,960 acres.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|title=Our Public Lands|department=Issued quarterly by United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management |date=1958-01-01|page=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eFPWo3AcWi8C&pg=RA3-PA7}}</ref> The cost was $16,295,149 or approximately 5 cents an acre.<ref name="books.google.com"/> The remainder (the southern parts) of New Mexico and Arizona were peacefully acquired under the [[Gadsden Purchase]], which was carried out in 1853. In this transfer the United States paid an additional $10 million (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US-GDP|10|1853|r=-1}} million in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}) for land intended to accommodate a [[First transcontinental railroad|transcontinental railroad]]. However, the [[American Civil War]] delayed the construction of such a route, and it was not until 1881 that the [[Southern Pacific Railroad]] finally was completed as a second transcontinental railroad, fulfilling the purpose of the acquisition.<ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Devine |title=Slavery, Scandal, and Steel Rails: The 1854 Gadsden Purchase and the Building of the Second Transcontinental Railroad Across Arizona and New Mexico Twenty-Five Years Later |location=New York |publisher=iUniverse |year=2004 |isbn=0-595-32913-6 }}{{Self-published source|date=October 2019}}</ref>

==Background to the war==
[[File:Negociación de la frontera México-EUA.svg|thumb|right|300px|Map of negotiation of the border between Mexico and the United States (1845-1848) as part of the American intervention in México.]]

Mexico had claimed the area in question since winning its independence from the [[Spanish Empire]] in 1821 following the [[Mexican War of Independence]]. The Spanish had conquered part of the area from the American Indian tribes over the preceding three centuries. Still, powerful and independent indigenous nations remained within that northern region of Mexico.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Most of that land was too dry and too mountainous to support a large population. About 80,000 Mexicans inhabited California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas during the period 1845 to 1850, with far fewer in [[Nevada]], southern and western Colorado, and Utah.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nostrand | first1 = Richard L. | year = 1975 | title = Mexican Americans Circa 1850 | journal = Annals of the Association of American Geographers | volume = 65 | issue = 3| pages = 378–390 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8306.1975.tb01046.x }}</ref> On 1 March 1845, U.S. President [[John Tyler]] signed legislation to authorize the United States to [[Texas annexation|annex the Republic of Texas]], effective on 29 December 1845. The Mexican government, which had never recognized the [[Republic of Texas]] as an independent country, had warned that annexation would be viewed as an [[casus belli|act of war]]. Both the United Kingdom and France recognized the Republic of Texas's independence and repeatedly tried to dissuade Mexico from declaring war against its northern neighbor. British efforts to mediate the quandary proved fruitless, in part because other political disputes (particularly the [[Oregon boundary dispute]]) arose between Great Britain (as the claimant of modern Canada) and the United States.

On 10 November 1845, before the outbreak of hostilities, President [[James K. Polk]] sent his envoy, [[John Slidell]], to Mexico. Slidell had instructions to offer Mexico around $5 million for the territory of [[Santa Fe de Nuevo México|Nuevo México]] and up to $40 million for [[Alta California]].<ref>Mills, B. 2003. ''U.S.-Mexican War.'' Facts On File, p. 23. {{ISBN|0-8160-4932-7}}</ref> The Mexican government dismissed Slidell, refusing to even meet with him.<ref name="Polk Third Annual Message">{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29488&st=&st1=|title=James K. Polk's Third Annual Message, 7 December 1847|publisher=presidency.ucsb.edu|access-date=27 June 2007}}</ref> Earlier in that year, Mexico had broken off [[diplomatic relations]] with the United States, based partly on its interpretation of the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] of 1819, under which newly independent Mexico claimed it had inherited rights. In that agreement, the United States had "renounced forever" all claims to Spanish territory.<ref>[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/spain/sp1819.htm#art3 Adams-Onis Treaty, Article III.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060719062738/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/spain/sp1819.htm |date=19 July 2006 }} From: yale.edu. Retrieved 6 November 2007.</ref><ref>"The United States hereby cede to His Catholic Majesty, and renounce forever, all their rights, claims, and pretensions to the Territories lying West and South of the above described Line [...]. http://www.tamu.edu/faculty/ccbn/dewitt/adamonis.htm</ref>

Neither side took any further action to avoid a war. Meanwhile, Polk settled a major territorial dispute with Britain via the [[Oregon Treaty]], which was signed on 15 June 1846. By avoiding any chance of conflict with Great Britain, the United States was given a free hand regarding Mexico. After the [[Thornton Affair]] of 25–26 April, when Mexican forces attacked an American unit in the disputed area, with the result that 11 Americans were killed, five wounded, and 49 captured, Congress passed a declaration of war, which Polk signed on 13 May 1846. The Mexican Congress responded with its own war declaration on 23 April 1846.{{Citation needed|reason=Illogical as a purported Mexican response, as date of Mexican declaration predates Thornton Affair|date=September 2022}}{{sfn|Davenport|2005|p=39}}

==Conduct of war==
{{Main|Mexican–American War}}
[[File:Map of Mexico including Yucatan and Upper California 1847.jpg|thumb|right|300 px|''Map o''. S. Augustus Mitchell, Philadelphia, 1847. [[Alta California]] shown including Nevada, Utah, and Arizona.]]

U.S. forces quickly moved beyond Texas to conquer Alta California, and New Mexico. Fighting there ended on 13 January 1847 with the signing of the "Capitulation Agreement" at "[[Campo de Cahuenga]]" and the end of the [[Taos Revolt]].<ref>Original Capitulation Agreement document (one of 25) on view at Campo de Cahuenga historical site</ref> By the middle of September 1847, U.S. forces had successfully invaded central Mexico and occupied Mexico City.

===Peace negotiations===
Some Eastern Democrats called for [[All of Mexico Movement|complete annexation of Mexico]] and recalled that a group of Mexico's leading citizens had invited General Winfield Scott to become dictator of Mexico after his capture of Mexico City (he declined).<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/ncps:@field(DOCID+@lit(ABR0102-0010-269)):: "Mexican Argument for Annexation."] ''The Living Age'', Volume 10, Issue 123. 19 September 1846.</ref> However, the movement did not draw widespread support. President Polk's [[State of the Union address]] in December 1847 upheld Mexican independence and argued at length that occupation and any further military operations in Mexico were aimed at securing a treaty ceding California and New Mexico up to approximately the [[32nd parallel north]] and possibly [[Baja California]] and transit rights across the [[Isthmus of Tehuantepec]].<ref name="Polk Third Annual Message" />

Despite several military defeats, the Mexican government was reluctant to agree to the loss of California and New Mexico. Even with its capital under enemy occupation, the Mexican government was inclined to consider factors such as the unwillingness of the U.S. administration to annex Mexico outright and what appeared to be deep divisions in domestic U.S. opinion regarding the war and its aims, which caused it to imagine that it was actually in a far better negotiating position than the military situation might have suggested.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} A further consideration was the growing opposition to slavery that had caused Mexico to end formal slavery in 1829 and its awareness of the well-known and growing sectional divide in the U.S. over the issue of slavery. It, therefore, made sense for Mexico to negotiate to play Northern U.S. interests against Southern U.S. interests.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

The Mexican negotiators also had intercepted a secret letter from Secretary of State Buchanan to Trist reiterating that annexing [[Baja California]] and acquiring American transit rights in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec were expendable American demands. With that knowledge, the Mexicans steadfastly refused to budge on either issue. (Chamberlin, Eugene [1963])

The Mexicans proposed peace terms that offered only the sale of [[Alta California]] north of the [[37th parallel north]]&nbsp;— north of [[Santa Cruz, California]] and [[Madera, California]] and the southern boundaries of today's Utah and Colorado. Anglo-American settlers already dominated this territory, but perhaps more importantly from the Mexican point of view, it represented the bulk of pre-war Mexican territory north of the [[Missouri Compromise]] line of [[parallel 36°30′ north]]&nbsp;— lands that, if annexed by the United States, would have been presumed by Northerners to be forever free of slavery. The Mexicans also offered to recognize the freedom of Texas from Mexican rule and its right to join the Union but held to its demand of the [[Nueces River]] as a boundary.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

While the Mexican government could not reasonably have expected the Polk Administration to accept such terms, it would have had reason to hope that a rejection of peace terms so favorable to Northern interests might have the potential to provoke sectional conflict in the United States or perhaps even a civil war that would fatally undermine the U.S. military position in Mexico. Instead, these terms, combined with other Mexican demands (in particular, for various indemnities), only provoked widespread indignation throughout the United States without causing the sectional conflict the Mexicans hoped for.

[[Jefferson Davis]] advised Polk that if Mexico appointed commissioners to come to the United States, the government that appointed them would probably be overthrown before they completed their mission, and they would likely be shot as traitors on their return; so that the only hope of peace was to have a U.S. representative in Mexico.{{sfn|Rives|1913|p=622}} Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the State Department under President Polk, finally negotiated a treaty with the Mexican delegation after ignoring his recall by President Polk in frustration with the failure to secure a treaty.<ref name="archives">[https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/guadalupe-hidalgo Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.] ''National Archives''. Retrieved 6 November 2007.</ref> Notwithstanding that the treaty had been negotiated against his instructions, given its achievement of the major American aim, President Polk passed it on to the Senate.<ref name="archives" />

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed by Nicholas Trist (on behalf of the United States) and Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain as [[plenipotentiary]] representatives of Mexico on 2 February 1848 at the main altar of the old [[Basilica of Guadalupe]] at Villa '''Hidalgo''' (within the present city limits) as U.S. troops under the command of Gen. [[Winfield Scott]] were occupying [[Mexico City]].<ref name=LOC-TGH>{{cite web |title=The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/ghtreaty/ |website=Hispanic Reading Room |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=13 October 2019 |quote=The Library holds the copy of the Treaty found in Nicholas Trist's papers, and as such, it does not represent the final version of the document which is kept at the U.S. National Archives.}}</ref>

===Debate in the American Congress===
[[File:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.jpg|thumb|200px|right|First page of the original treaty<ref name=LOC-TGH />]]
The version of the treaty ratified by the [[United States Senate]] eliminated Article X,<ref name="loc">[https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/ghtreaty "The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo."] ''Library of Congress, Hispanic Reading Room''. Retrieved 6 November 2007.</ref> which stated that the U.S. government would honor and guarantee all [[land grant]]s awarded in lands ceded to the United States by those respective governments to citizens of Spain and Mexico. Article VIII guaranteed that Mexicans who remained more than one year in the ceded lands would automatically become full-fledged United States citizens (or they could declare their intention of remaining Mexican citizens); however, the Senate modified Article IX, changing the first paragraph and excluding the last two. Among the changes was that Mexican citizens would "be admitted at the proper time (to be judged of by the Congress of the United States)" instead of "admitted as soon as possible", as negotiated between Trist and the Mexican delegation.

An amendment by [[Jefferson Davis]] giving the United States most of [[Tamaulipas]] and [[Nuevo León]], all of [[Coahuila]], and a large part of [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] was supported by both senators from Texas ([[Sam Houston]] and [[Thomas Jefferson Rusk]]), [[Daniel S. Dickinson]] of New York, [[Stephen A. Douglas]] of Illinois, [[Edward A. Hannegan]] of Indiana, and one each from Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, and Tennessee. Most of the leaders of the Democratic party, [[Thomas Hart Benton (senator)|Thomas Hart Benton]], [[John C. Calhoun]], [[Herschel V. Johnson]], [[Lewis Cass]], [[James Murray Mason]] of Virginia and [[Ambrose Hundley Sevier]] were opposed, and the amendment was defeated 44–11.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The United States and Mexico, 1821–1848|publisher=C. Scribner's Sons|url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesand05rivegoog|author=George Lockhart Rives|pages=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesand05rivegoog/page/n672 634]–636|year = 1913}}</ref>

An amendment by Whig Sen. [[George Edmund Badger]] of North Carolina to exclude New Mexico and California lost 35–15, with three Southern Whigs voting with the Democrats. [[Daniel Webster]] was bitter that four New England senators made deciding votes for acquiring the new territories.

A motion to insert into the treaty the [[Wilmot Proviso]] (banning slavery from the acquired territories) failed 15–38 on sectional lines.

The treaty was leaked to [[John Nugent (U.S. government agent)|John Nugent]] before the U.S. Senate could approve it. Nugent published his article in the ''[[New York Herald]]'' and, afterward, was questioned by senators. He was detained in a Senate committee room for one month, though he continued to file articles for his newspaper and ate and slept at the home of the sergeant at arms. Nugent did not reveal his source, and senators eventually gave up their efforts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/The_Senate_Arrests_A_Reporter.htm |title=The Senate Arrests a Reporter |publisher=U.S. Senate}}</ref>

The treaty was subsequently [[ratification|ratified]] by the U.S. Senate by a vote of 38 to 14 on 10 March 1848 and by Mexico through a [[legislative]] vote of 51 to 34 and a Senate vote of 33 to 4, on 19 May 1848. News that New Mexico's legislative assembly had just passed an act for the organization of a U.S. territorial government helped ease Mexican concern about abandoning the people of New Mexico.{{sfn|Rives|1913|p=649}} The treaty was formally proclaimed on 4 July 1848.<ref>{{cite web
| author=Online Highways LLC editorial group
| title = Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
| publisher=U-S-History.com
| url = http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h142.html
| access-date = 2012-03-25}}</ref>

===Debate in the Mexican Congress===
[[File:Retrato de Manuel de la Peña y Peña.jpg|thumb|President [[Manuel de la Peña y Peña]]]]
The Mexican Congress and President [[Manuel de la Peña y Peña]] met at [[Querétaro City]] in May, 1848 while Mexico City was occupied, and were now faced with the task of negotiating the treaty while dealing with separatism and anarchy spreading throughout the country. The [[Caste War]] was ongoing in Yucatán, and the insurgents in that conflict had occupied the major cities. Many states considered the federal government to be an enemy and refused to pay taxes. Meanwhile, most notably in the Federal District there was a Mexican element advocating annexation of the entire country to the United States.<ref name="Rivera Cambas 1873 352">{{cite book |last=Rivera Cambas|first=Manuel|date=1873|title=Los Gobernantes de Mexico: Tomo II|publisher=J.M. Aguilar Cruz|pages=352|language=es}}</ref>

The majority of congress supported the government's peace policy viewing in the Treaty of Guadalupe nothing but the unfortunate result of a poorly fought war, and viewed under this perspective as a national necessity. A foreign relations commission returned affirmative answers to two questions that congress had directed it to report upon: ''May the government with the consent of Congress cede a portion of territory? Is it suitable to make peace upon the terms which have been proposed?'' The first question was resolved based upon the principle that congress was the deposit of the national sovereignty. The second question was resolved upon the consideration that Mexico had never been in full possession of the territories that were about to be ceded, and that most of that land was either not populated, or populated by hostile indigenous tribes.<ref name="Rivera Cambas 1873 352"/> It was also taken into account that Mexico could not continue the war without facing certain defeat and risking the loss of the entire country.<ref name="Rivera Cambas 1873 353">{{cite book |last=Rivera Cambas|first=Manuel|date=1873|title=Los Gobernantes de Mexico: Tomo II|publisher=J.M. Aguilar Cruz|pages=353|language=es}}</ref>
After the commission reported its findings, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was approved by congress. President Peña y Peña prepared decrees to prevent disorder in the capital once the occupiers left and to establish a national guard. On 26 May 1848 the government received the commissioners [[Nathan Clifford]] and [[Ambrose Hundley Sevier]] who were in Mexico to negotiate the treaty after congress had approved it with some slight modifications.<ref name="Rivera Cambas 1873 353"/>

Meanwhile, the President had to deal with guerilla warfare throughout the country afflicting both the American occupiers and Mexican merchants. The aim of the guerillas was to disrupt the American supply chain from Veracruz to the capital. This was also leading to indiscriminate American reprisals.<ref name="Rivera Cambas 1873 353"/> As the peace treaty was concluded and the occupiers were on the point of leaving the country, congress named [[Jose Joaquin Herrera]] to the presidency of the republic, and Peña y Peña left his post as president in exchange for the presidency of the Supreme Court on 3 June 1848. The government left Querétaro and returned to the capital.<ref name="Rivera Cambas 1873 353"/>

===Protocol of Querétaro===
On 30 May 1848, when the two countries exchanged ratifications of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, they further negotiated a three-article protocol to explain the amendments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Protocol of Querétaro (1848) |url=https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/multicultural-america/chpt/protocol-queretaro-1848 |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Sage Reference}}</ref> The first article stated that the original Article IX of the treaty, although replaced by Article III of the [[Louisiana Purchase|Treaty of Louisiana]], would still confer the rights delineated in Article IX. The second article confirmed the legitimacy of land grants pursuant to Mexican law.<ref name="dayton">[http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/guadalu.htm#Original%20ARTICLE%20X Treaty of Hidalgo, Protocol of Querétaro.] From: academic.udayton.edu. Retrieved 6 November 2007.</ref>

The protocol further noted that the Mexican Minister of Foreign Affairs had accepted said explanations on behalf of the Mexican Government,<ref name="dayton" /> and was signed in [[Querétaro]] by A. H. Sevier, [[Nathan Clifford]] and [[Luis de la Rosa Oteiza|Luis de la Rosa]].

The United States would later ignore the protocol on the grounds that the U.S. representatives had over-reached their authority in agreeing to it.<ref>David Hunter Miller, ''Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America'', vol. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1937)</ref>

===Treaty of Mesilla===
The [[Treaty of Mesilla]], which concluded the Gadsden purchase of 1854, had significant implications for the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Article II of the treaty annulled article XI of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, and article IV further annulled articles VI and VII of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Article V, however, reaffirmed the property guarantees of Guadalupe Hidalgo, specifically those contained within articles VIII and IX.<ref>Mills, B. p. 122.</ref>

==Effects==
[[File:Mexican Cession in Mexican View.PNG|thumb|300px|right|The Mexican Cession agreed with Mexico (white) and the [[Gadsden Purchase]] (brown). Part of the area marked as Gadsden Purchase near modern-day [[Mesilla, New Mexico]], was disputed after the Treaty.]]
In addition to the sale of land, the treaty also provided recognition of the Rio Grande as the boundary between the state of Texas and Mexico.<ref>[http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/guadalu.htm#art5 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Article V]. From: academic.udayton.edu. Retrieved 7 November 2007.</ref> The land boundaries were established by a survey team of appointed Mexican and American representatives,<ref name="archives" /> and published in three volumes as the [[United States and Mexican Boundary Survey]]. On 30 December 1853, the countries, by agreement, altered the border from the initial one by increasing the number of border markers from 6 to 53.<ref name="archives" /> Most of these markers were simply piles of stones.<ref name="archives" /> Two later conventions, in 1882 and 1889, further clarified the boundaries, as some of the markers had been moved or destroyed.<ref name="archives" /> Photographers were brought in to document the location of the markers. These photographs are in Record Group 77, Records of the Office of the Chief Engineers, in the National Archives.

The southern border of California was designated as a line from the junction of the Colorado and Gila rivers westward to the Pacific Ocean so that it passes one Spanish league south of the southernmost portion of San Diego Bay. This was done to ensure that the United States received San Diego and its excellent natural harbor.{{sfn|Davenport|2005|page=46}}

The treaty extended the choice of U.S. citizenship to Mexicans in the newly purchased territories before many African Americans, Asians, and Native Americans were eligible. If they chose to, they had to declare to the U.S. government within a year of the Treaty being signed; otherwise, they could remain Mexican citizens, but they would have to relocate.<ref name=":0"/> Between 1850 and 1920, the U.S. Census counted most Mexicans as racially "white".<ref>Gibson, C.J. and E. Lennon. 1999. [https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/twps0029.html "Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-born Population of the United States: 1850–1990."] ''U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division''. Retrieved 6 November 2007.</ref>

[[Community property]] rights in California and other western states are based on the [[Visigothic Code]] which Spain adopted and then brought to the Americas, including the former territories of Mexico that were ceded to the U.S. Although each state had different motivations for adopting the Spanish approach, one common driver was that it was already in place in the region for many years. According to a 2011 assessment, changing to a common law system for marital property "would have been nothing short of a revolution".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Newcombe |first=Caroline Bermeo |date=2011 |title=The Origin and Civil Law Foundation of the Community Property System, Why California Adopted It and Why Community Property Principles Benefit Women |url=http://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/rrgc/vol11/iss1/2 |journal=University of Maryland Law Journal of Race, Religion, Gender and Class |volume=11 |issue=1}}</ref>

===Land gained by the United States===
[[File:Gilman (United States (after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo)) 1848 UTA.jpg|thumb|300px|E. Gilman, ''[United States (after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo)]'', 1848]]
The United States received the territories of [[Alta California]] and [[Santa Fe de Nuevo México]]. Today they comprise some or all of the U.S. states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming. While this land was vast in area, most of it was very sparsely populated, inhabited mostly by indigenous Americans, rather than white Americans or Mexicans.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=St John |first=Rachel |title=Line in the sand: a history of the Western US-Mexico border |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=9781400838639 |pages=}}</ref>

===Additional issues===
Additional issues stemming from the treaty included contention over slavery, border disputes with Mexico, mapping difficulties, cross-border incursions by both nations, community land grant claims, and water rights assignment between the two nations.

Disputes about whether to make all this new territory into [[slave states and free states|slave states or slave states]], including [[Bleeding Kansas]], contributed heavily to the rise in North–South tensions that led to the [[American Civil War]] just over a decade later.

Following the signing of the treaty, border disputes continued, with the United States sending envoy [[James Gadsden]] to negotiate the sale of additional territory to the US.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/gadsden-purchase |title=Gadsden Purchase, 1853–1854 |publisher=U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian |access-date=July 8, 2018}}</ref> In 1853, American [[Filibuster (military)|filibuster]] [[William Walker (filibuster)|William Walker]] led an unauthorized expedition into [[Baja California]] and [[Sonora]], proclaiming the short-lived [[Republic of Lower California]] with the aim of being annexed by the United States.{{sfn |Wyllys |1933}} <ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/gadsden-purchase |title=Gadsden Purchase, 1853–1854 |publisher=U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian |access-date=July 8, 2018}}</ref> Although Walker's unrecognized state collapsed in January 1854, Mexican President [[Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna]] continued to see the US as a threat amid Mexico's persisting economic problems.{{sfn|Davenport|2005|p=60}} Desiring to stave off American expansionist desires as well as alleviate domestic financial problems, Santa Anna sought to sell an area as small as possible to the US for as much money as possible, leading to the controversial $15 million [[Gadsden Purchase]] in 1854.<ref name="azstar">{{cite news |first=Ignacio |last=Ibarra |title=Land sale still thorn to Mexico: Historians say United States imperialism behind treaty |url=http://www.azstarnet.com/sn/gadsden/9331 |newspaper=[[Arizona Daily Star]] |date=February 12, 2004 |access-date=October 4, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503064503/http://www.azstarnet.com/sn/gadsden/9331 |archive-date=May 3, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The border commission also faced many difficulties in mapping out the boundary, with the surveying process lasting over 7 years, due to the challenges of marking out a border in such a vast desolate territory and negotiating with indigenous Americans who had not been considered in the prior treaty negotiations.<ref name=":1" />

The [[Channel Islands of California]] and [[Farallon Islands]] are not mentioned in the Treaty.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mexidata.info/id1596.html |title=Mexico's Claim to California Islands – A Never-ending Story |author=Barnard R. Thompson |access-date=31 May 2011 |archive-date=21 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821210818/http://mexidata.info/id1596.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> 

The armed forces of both countries routinely crossed the border. Mexican and [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] troops often clashed during the [[American Civil War]], and the United States crossed the border during the war of [[Second French intervention in Mexico]]. In March 1916, [[Pancho Villa]] led a raid on the U.S. border town of [[Columbus, New Mexico]], which was followed by [[Pancho Villa Expedition|the Pershing expedition]]. The shifting of the Rio Grande since the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe caused a dispute over the boundary between the states of New Mexico and Texas, a case referred to as the [[Country Club Dispute]] that was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1927.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bowden |first1=J. J. |title=The Texas-New Mexico Boundary Dispute along the Rio Grande |journal=The Southwestern Historical Quarterly |date=1959 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=221–237 |jstor=30240862 }}</ref> 

Controversy over community land grant claims in [[New Mexico]] persists to this day.<ref name="Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: Findings and Possible Options Regarding Longstanding Community Land Grant Claims in New Mexico">{{cite web |url=http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0459.pdf |title=Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: Findings and Possible Options Regarding Longstanding Community Land Grant Claims in New Mexico |publisher=General Accounting Office |access-date=5 June 2008}}</ref>

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo led to the establishment in 1889 of the [[International Boundary and Water Commission]] to maintain the border and, according to newer treaties, to allocate river waters between the two nations and to provide for flood control and water sanitation. Once viewed as a model of international cooperation, in recent decades, the IBWC has been heavily criticized as an institutional anachronism, bypassed by modern social, environmental, and political issues.<ref>Robert J. McCarthy, Executive Authority, Adaptive Treaty Interpretation, and the International Boundary and Water Commission, U.S.-Mexico, 14-2 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 197(Spring 2011) (also available for free download at https://ssrn.com/abstract=1839903).</ref>

Writing many years later, Nicholas Trist would describe the Treaty as "a thing for every right-minded American to be ashamed of".<ref>{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Robert |date= 21 August 2012|title=Lions of the West: Heroes and Villains of the Westward Expansion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYnnnRrTEhQC |location=North Carolina |publisher=Algonquin Books |page=390 |isbn=978-1-61620-189-0}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[1848 in Mexico]]
* [[Annexation Bill of 1866]]
* [[Californio#Californios in literature|Californios in literature]]
* [[Gadsden Purchase]]
* [[Treaty of Cahuenga]]
* [[History of New Mexico#Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo|Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (History of New Mexico)]]
* [[Bibliography of California history]]
;Aboriginal title
* [[Aboriginal title in California]]
* [[Aboriginal title in New Mexico]]
}}

==Notes==
{{notelist|30em}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources and further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Davenport |first=John C. |date=2005 |title=''The U.S.-Mexico Border : The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo'' |url=https://archive.org/details/usmexicobordertr0000dave |volume= |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Chelsea House |isbn=0-7910-7833-7 }}
* {{Citation |last=Griswold del Castillo |first=Richard |title=The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: A Legacy of Conflict |location=Norman |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-8061-2240-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/treatyofguadalup00rich|access-date=8 February 2023}}
* {{cite book|last1=Klein|first1= Julius|title=The making of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, on February 2, 1848|year=1905|url=https://archive.org/details/makingtreaty00kleirich |publisher=Berkeley, The University press|access-date=8 February 2023}}
* Morrison, Michael A. ''Slavery and the American West: The Eclipse of Manifest Destiny'' (1999)
* {{cite book |last=Ohrt |first=Wallace |title=Defiant Peacemaker: Nicholas Trist in the Mexican War |location=College Station |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-89096-778-4 }}
* Pinheiro, John C. " 'Religion without Restriction': Anti-Catholicism, All Mexico, and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 23.1 (2003): 69–96. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3124986 online]
* {{Cite journal |last1=Reeves |first1=Jesse S. |title=The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo |journal=American Historical Review |year=1905 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=309–324 |jstor=1834723 |doi=10.2307/1834723 |hdl=10217/189496 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rives |first1=George Lockhart |date=1913 |title=The United States and Mexico, 1821–1848: a history of the relations between the two countries from the independence of Mexico to the close of the war with the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesand05rivegoog|volume=2 |location=New York |publisher=C. Scribner's Sons }}
* Sears, Louis Martin. "Nicholas P. Trist, A Diplomat with Ideals." ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review''11#1 (1924): 85–98. [https://doi.org/10.2307/1891928 online]
* Varg, Paul A. ''United States Foreign Relations, 1820-1860'' (Michigan State UP, 1979) pp.&nbsp;168–194.
* Velazquez-Flores, Rafael. "Mexico's Foreign Policy in the Nineteenth Century: The Origins of Principled Pragmatism, 1821–1853." in ''Principled Pragmatism in Mexico's Foreign Policy: Variables and Assumptions'' (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022). 33–47.
* {{Cite journal |last=Wyllys |first=Rufus Kay |date=1933 |title=The Republic of Lower California, 1853-1854 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3633829 |journal=Pacific Historical Review |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=194–213 |doi=10.2307/3633829 |jstor=3633829 |issn=0030-8684}}
*{{Cite journal |last1=Chamberlin |first1=Eugene |title=Nicholas Trist and Baja California |journal=Pacific Historical Review |year=1963 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=49-63}}

==External links==
{{NIE poster|year=1905|Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of|Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Guadalupe.html | title=Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and related resources at the U.S. Library of Congress| website=[[Library of Congress]]}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/ghtreaty/ghtreaty.html |publisher= Library of Congress – Hispanic Reading Room portal|title= The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/treaty-of-guadalupe-hidalgo?_ga=2.244674181.1288111168.1675882853-1671603775.1675882853 |title= Text of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo|date= 25 June 2021}}
* {{cite web| url=http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/guadalu.htm#Original%20ARTICLE%20X |title=Copy of Treaty, including sections stricken out by Senate}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.quaqua.org/guadalupehidalgo.htm |title=Text of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, and analysis}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0459.pdf|title= U.S. General Accounting Office report on the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, June 2004}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/mexicanwar/ |title=Library of Congress Guide to the Mexican War|website=[[Library of Congress]] }}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2006558_2006562_2006599,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727234540/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2006558_2006562_2006599,00.html|title= ''Time'' magazine article on the treaty leak|archive-date=27 July 2010|access-date=8 February 2023|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921220950/http://library.uta.edu/usmexicowar/moduleresult.php?module_id=4|archive-date=21 September 2013|url=http://library.uta.edu/usmexicowar/moduleresult.php?module_id=4|title= Occupation and Aftermath}} at {{cite web|url=http://library.uta.edu/usmexicowar/ |title=A Continent Divided: The U.S.-Mexico War]|publisher=Center for Greater Southwestern Studies| place=University of Texas at Arlington}}
* {{cite web|url=http://omniatlas.com/maps/northamerica/18480202/ |title=Map of North America and the Caribbean at the time of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo| website=omniatlas.com}}

{{James K. Polk}}
{{Chicano and Mexican American topics}}
{{Utah}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Guadalupe Hidalgo}}
[[Category:Treaties of the Mexican–American War]]
[[Category:1848 treaties]]
[[Category:Mexico–United States treaties]]
[[Category:Peace treaties of the United States]]
[[Category:Peace treaties of Mexico]]
[[Category:Treaties involving territorial changes]]
[[Category:History of the American West]]
[[Category:History of the Southwestern United States]]
[[Category:History of United States expansionism]]
[[Category:1848 in Mexico]]
[[Category:1848 in Alta California]]
[[Category:1848 in California]]
[[Category:1848 in the United States]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Arizona]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Colorado]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Nevada]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Utah]]
[[Category:Presidency of James K. Polk]]
[[Category:History of Mexican Americans]]
[[Category:Mexico–United States border]]
[[Category:Texas border disputes]]
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